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DOCOHEIIT SESmE

PS 009 186

flontessori^ ilario M. Jr.

Education for Human Development: Onderstanding

Hontessori,

131p,

Schocken Books^. 200 Madison Avenue^ New York^ New
York^ 10016 ($7.95)

tiF-$0.83 HC-$7.35 Plus Postage,
Child Development; *Early Childhood Education;
♦Educational Philosophy; *Educational Theories;
Putures (of Society); *Human Development;
Observation ; Personality Development ; Psychology ;
Social Values; student Motivation; Student Teacher
Belationship; *?alues

Montessori (Maria) ; *Montessori Method

This book presents the philosphical^ psychological^
and educational ideas of Maria Montessori, Chapters d.eal with: (1)
rhe contribution of Montessori's ideas to philosophy^ education^
science # and child development; (2) the relationship of the
Montessori materials to a child's intellectual/ emotional and social
development; (3) Montessori' s view of people in relation to modern
psychology; (4) the psychological value of work in school; (5) th§
Montessori view of the process of education and learning; (6)
education in a changing world; (7) Montessori philosophy as related
to the rapidly changing values of society; and (8) the concept of
cosmic education. An appendix contains observations of a Montessori
classroom. (SB)

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EKLC

EDUCATION
i FOR HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT

Understanding Montessori

MARIO M. MONTESSORI, JR.

Edited by Paula Polk Lillcrd

us OEPABTMENT OF HEALTH.
»^ EDUCATION tWELFABE

CO NATIONAL. «ST.TV,TE OF

■^U^ EDUCATION
CfS THIS DOCUAAeNT HAS BEE^N^^«E^^^^^

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First published by schocken hooks 1976
Copyright ^0 1976 by Schocken Books Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Montessori. Mario M
'Education for huitian development.

Inchides index.

1. Montt^sori niettiod of education. I. Title.
I.B77vM8M^7 372.1'^ 7';->7042

Manufactured in the United States of America

To My Children

Mario, Carolina, Ada, Nicouna, and Rolando

ERIC

CONTENTS

A n Apprecia tio ri of Wo n t esso ri

BUCKMINSTKR FuLLER ix

Introduction

P.WLA POIX LlIXARD xi

1/ The Contrii)iition of Maria Montessori 1

2/ The Montessori Materials: Their Function and

Relatioiiship to the Child's Work, Play, and Social Life 17

3/ Montessori Education and Modern Psychology 3-5

4/ llic Psychological Value of Work in School 47

5/ Moncessori and the Process of Education 59

6/ Education in a Changing World 73

7/ Montessori a :d the Revolution in Values 85

8/ Cosmic Education 97

Appendix: A Montessori Classroom

PwiA Polk Lillard 107

Index 1 17

EKLC

AN APPRECIATION
OF MONTESSORI
Buckminster Fuller

All cliildren .arc l)orn geniuses. 9Q99 out of every 10,000 are swiftly,
inadvertently, dcgeinused by grown-ups, 'I'll is happens becau^>e
hmuau beings are born naked, helpless, and'— tliougl; superbly
equipped cerebrally— utterly lacking in experience, therefore utterly
ignorant. Tlieir delicate sensing equipment is, as yet, untried. Born
with built-in hunger, thirst, curiosity, the proereadvc urge, they can
only learn what humanity has learned by trial and error— by billions
upon billions of errors. Yet hinnanity is also endowed with self-
deceiving prkle. All those witnessing the errors of others proclaim
that they (the witnesses) could have prevented those errors had
they only ':>een consulted* "People should not make jnistakes*' they
niistakenly s:ay. Motivated entirely by love, but ulso by fear for the
futures off the children they love, parents, in their ignorance, act as
though they know all tlie answers and curtail the spontaneous
cxploratorv' acts of their children, lest the children make "mis-
takes/' But genius does its own thinking; it has confidence in its
own exploratory findings, in its own intuitions, in the knowledge
gained from its own mistakes. Nature has her own gestation rates
for evr>lutionary development. The actions of parents represent the
checks and balances of nature's gestation control. Humanity ca«i
evolve healthily only at a given rate. Maria Montessori was
fortiuiately permitted to maintain, sustain, and cultivate her innate
genius. Her genius invoked her awareness of the genius inherent in

X An Appreciation of Montessori

iiU children. Mer intuition and initiative inspired her to discover
ways of safeguarding this genius while allaying the ignoran'i fears of
parents. But the way was not always easy. Hers was the difficult
fron tiering task of genius.

BUCKMINSTKR 1*ULLER

SunseU Maine
Aiigust i9, 197?

INTRODUCTION
Paula Polk Lillard

Miin;j Montcssori heE^ini her pioneering work on behalf of chilJreii
at the tnrn of tlie ecntury. 'Hie centennial of her birtli was
celel)rate(l liot long ago. Mowcver, chiring tlic intervening years,
there have l;een fewer commentaries adding new insiglits to lier
work than one won Id expect.^ 'I'he following chapters helj) to fill
this void in the Montessori hterature. 'They are based on lectures
originally presented, for the most part, at Montessori meetings in
\arions countries (hiring the 196()s and 197()s by Dr. Mario M.
Montessori, Jr., a f)racticing jjsychoaiialyst in Anistcrdain, vice
president of the International Psychoanalytic Association, and a
grandson of Maria Montessori, These lectnres, given in English, were
prepared in response to requests from Montessori teachers and
paretits for information on various topics. They represent an
endeavor on the author's j)art to highlight the originality of some of
Moiitessori's viewj)oiiits and show their iinportanec for education
today.

Oiie fact is clear from the essays in this book: Montessori was
ailliiJg for a revolution in society's approach to human develop-
ment and education. Because of her revolutionary ideas. Mcr.-
tessori's philosophy and methods historically have not been easily
understood or accepted, by either her critics or her adinirers One
area in which her revolutionary •ipproach is apparent is in her
attitude to the child himself.

xii

Intwductiiyn

Montcssori IkkI a clce|) reverence for creation. This rcvcrc-ijce
ami her knowledge of tiie physical sciences eonibined in ;t focus on
children and their role in the creation of adnlt human beings.
Phillipc Arie.s points out in Centuries of Childhood' that the
recognition of the child as ij unique entity is relatively recent in
Western culture, Historically, very young children vrere regarded :is
primitive beings to be pliysically cared for. biit whose importance,
except in the continmun of human life, was given little thought. As
early as the age of seven or eight they were regarded as mhiiature
adults. I'xpected to reason, to accept responsibility, and often, to
plan for their own sur\'ival.

Gradually, with the advent of the industrial Revolution, a
concern for the state of childhood began, Children played a more
realistic rok- in the arts-in the novels of Charies Dickens and the
paintings of the fnipressionists. Society's new awareness of children .
may have been partly a result of the development of family life as
we know it today, with parents, paiticularly mothers, able to spend
more time in the home.'*''For the most part, however, this new
awareness grew out of tlie psychological and cultural frainework of
nineteenth-ceritury Europe and America. The traditional emphasis
of the Chrisl'ian Church on man's evil nature and the necessity for
the salvation of children through, baptisi \ had led to an approach
to children that was often one of rigid control and nianipn.lation.
However, at least one philosopher, Rousseau, had taken an
opposite view— that children were innately good and needed only
to be freed froui the contamination of civilization for their true
nature to be exposed, 'f'his theory often contributed to a sentimen-
tal and idealistic view of the child. To add to the confusion,
Freud's work with adults had revealed the sexuality of the very
young child. .Adults, made aware of their- own repressed emotions,
became less sure of how children should he treated.

The varied approaches to children current in the nineteenth
century had one aspect in connnon. They were based, for the most
part, on the experience of adults with other adults. They were not
derived from direct observation of the behavior and development
of children. Montcssori. however, reasoned that the way to a deeper
understanding of men and women was through observation of
clnklren.

ItitToductioii

Mil

The child sljould not he regarded as a feeble and helpless creature
wliose only need is to he protected and helped, hut .i^ a spiritual
enihryo. possessed of an active psychic life from the day that he is
boni and guided by subtle instincts enabling him to actively build up
the hiinian personality. And since it is the child who becomes the
adult man, we must consider him as the true builder of mankind and
recognize him as our father. The great secret of our origin lies hidden
V -thin liim, and the laws that will lead man to his rightful state of
being can be manifested only within him. In this sense the child is
r)ur teacher;*

Dr. Montessori's medical background led her logically to this
conclusion. She noted that biologists had not realK' un^!er^^ood
organisms from studying theiii in their fully developed state. Only
after the invention of the microscope and tlie observation of cell
division was a breakthrough in embryology, and hence in biology,
made, by the same token, it was not until pbysical scientists could
peer into the atomic *\vindow," the spectrum, that a breakthrough
in the understanding of matter came. -

Although trained in the seientifie approach. Montessori did not
pursue her study of the child in the neces.sarily restricted eiiviron-
ment of the laboratory. This fact has caused misunderstanding,
even mistrust, of \'lontessori*s work. Jt may be well, therefore, to let
her speak for herself in explaining wluit thoughts went through her
nn'nd vviien she worked with children.

When I am in the midst of children [ do not think of myself as a
scientist, a theoretician. When I am with children 1 am a nobody,
and the greatest privilege 1 have when 1 approach then* is being able
to forget that 1 even exist, for this has enabled uie to see things that
one would miss it one were sonjebody— litde things, simple but very
precious truths. It is not always imperative to see big things, hut it is
of paramount importance to sec the beginnings of things. At their
origins there are little glinnners that ran be recognized as soon as
something new is developing. . . . The cliiki is a spiritual embryo that
develops spontaneously, and if we follow him from the beginning, he
can reveal many things to us.-'*

This thought introdticei a second revolutionary approach of
Montessori; it is the humanity of children at which we must look in

xiv

Introductioti

order to discover tlic secret of tlicir life. Wluit is specifically liiiiiKin
about cliildreii. tlic spontaneous nature of these developing spsp
itnal embryos, cannot be uncovered in the strict .sciei^tific at-
mosphere of the laboratory.

There are, of conrse. scientists who have studied the likenesses
between men and animals in the laboratory: Darwin ;md W'ulhicc,
and more recently, Loren/. and Skinner. Although what they teU' us
can be nsefnl, we shonld not exagger;tite the help hehavioTtjl
|)sychologists can give us. It is the uniqueness of man that wc must
penetrate if we are to solve the problems of our existence. As
Montessori points out,

Nhni's soul is an enignij. It has remained an unkuovvn that inhabits
an UAi known domain. Not even psyciiology has bc^-n able to
enliglitcn us, to shed light on the mystery.^'

Since the 196()s thei , has been a shift away fron^ t!ie emphasis
on laboratory tcchuiques and animal research in ''he stiuiy of man.
The discovery by biologists that we arc not what we thought we
were, even physically,'^ and by physicists that all matter evolves, has
ended the age-old dream that the universe and our observations of
it can be reduced to precise mathematical formulas. As Brouowski
notes in The Ascent of Man,

wc had hoped tliat huuKni errors would disappear and t)u;t wc would
ourselves have Cod's view. But it turns out that the errors i-annot be
taken out of the ol)Scr*:itions. And that is true of sturs, or atoms, or
just looking a' soniebody's picture, or liearing tlie report of
sonieb{)dy*s speech.**

This newhuiuility toward the results of laboratorv research may
result in a more receptive attitude toward Moutcs^iori 's approach to
the study of the child. For, though she was a careful experimenter
and keen observer, she bad no expectations of reducing her
contribution to irrefutable scieiitific theories tlirough laboratory
procedures. Her concentration on the nniqneucss of man and his
s])ontaueous development prcchided any such dream. Rather tbau
arguing the scientific merits of her work, it may be more useful to

lntcodu<:tixm

consider it as belonging to tlic rc\ilni of naturnl pliilo.sophy: an area
of study .soniewliat neglected in recent year . per traps, but one tliat
is once again l>eginning to receive attention— even from scientists.'^

Or. Mario Jr. also discusses two further revolutionary concepts
ot Maria Montessori in Ins lectures: lier view of education as a
necessity in tlie formation of tlie luunan personality and the
relationship of man to the cosmos. Her developmcjit of "cosmic
education" in response to her convictions concerning the latter is
particularly important for oi*r world today.

Education for Uiwiau Development succeeds in conveying the
deptli of Maria Montessori's contribution to human knowledge as
no book before it has done. Montessori made revolutionary
discoveries regarding human development that have imjjlications
far beyond a simple shift to new educational approaches or
techniques. The author's unicjuc background, combining as it does
psychoanalytic experience and an intimate knowledge of Mon-
tessori, has made possible an articulate discussion of these discov-
eries and their relation to the jjroblcnis and opportunities of the
modern world. His discussion of modern jjsychology and psycho-
analytic concepts as they relate to Montes.sori, and of the role of
work and play in the develo|nneut ' of human personality, arc
particularly outstanding.

Because the originar audience foT Mario fr.'s lectures were
Montessori parents and teachers, they presuppose some working
knowledge of classroom procedures. For those who may not have
such knowledge, an appendix containing impressions from a
morning visit to two classes in a Montessori school has been
included. Hopefully, it will convey to the reader at least the flavor
of Montessori classroom life.

Paula Polk Lillard

xvi

Introduction

NOTES

\. One notable exception is J. McVicker Hunt's excellent, hut
necessarily brief, introduction to the American edition of The Montcssori
Method, pnbhshed hy Schockcn Books in 1964. Also see M. M. Mon-
tessori, Montessori Method-Science or Bchef? (Ainsterd;nn: A. M. I
ConK!uniications, 1968), p. 8.

2. Philhpe Aries, Centuries of Childhood (New York: Knopf, 1962).

^. Elizabeth Janeway, Mans World, Women's Place (New York: Arno,
1973).

4. Maria Montessori, Education and Peace (Chicago: Regnerv, 1972)
p41.

5. Ibid., p. 101.

6. Ibid., p. 103.

7. See n»onias Lewis, The Lives of a Cell (New York: Viking, 1974).

8. J. Broiiowski, The Ascent of Man (Boston: Little Brown, 1973), pp
13,15,364.

9. Montessori, Education and Peace, p. 90.

Ki:)UCA'ri()N I'OR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

ERIC

1/ THE CONTRIBUTION
' OF MARIA
MONTESSORI

Maria Montessori was originally no pedagogue, but a physician
with a deep interest in the human person, ijoth as a social being
and as a participant in the fundamental ontologicai order. In the
course of her career as the first woman physician in Italy, and later
as Professor of Anthropology and Hygienics at the University of
Rome, she actively participated in the emancipation of women. She
enjoyed an international reputation for a decade before the onset
of the educational experiment with which she eventually came to
be identified by society. She gained woild fame as a pedagogue, yet
this role, and its instantaneous effect on public opinion, actually
took her as nuidi by surprise as did the discoveries on which it was
based. It was iniiglit into the significance of these discoveries for a
better understanding of the human being that motivated her
subsequent behavior. It compelled her, on the one hand, to
concentrate on this particular investigation to the exclusion of
everything else, and on the other, to connuunicate her findings to
her fellow men and to fight whatever prevented their acceptance.

This attitude generated from the start a cultural movement of
growing impact, one that is still going on. It* was not Montessori's
intention to start such a movement; it was merely a byproduct of
her activities. Her concern was to bring to light her newly acquired
knowledge of human development. She dedicated herself whole-
heartedly to this task, advocating the cause of the child (i.e., of man
in becoming) throughout her long life.

2 KDUCA I ION FOR HUMAN rHA'Kl.OPMKN I

Bc'caiisc licr experiences indicated tliat edneation played a more
essential role in this process of beconnng than was generally
assumed. Montessori focused her attention on this particular realm
of human activity, i lence her reputation as a pedagogue. However,
her approach was so radically different from what is generally
encountered in the pedagogical world that it is qnesti'^*' 'ble
whether the label really fits her. \ believe this to be one source of
the many controversies that have arisen in connection witli her
work. It is. in any case, certain that she herself never fully identified
with the role of pedjigogue nor. for that matter, with many other
images that have been projected on her. She followed her own
course, guided by what had impressed her as a basic truth, so far
ignored, that should be brought to the attention of those con-
cerned with the liuman situation. So intent was she on her purpose
tliat she took little notice of either the ensuing praise or criticism of
her activities. Ilcr goal was to enable others to see the basic truth
she had discovered, so that they could be guided by it in their own
way regardless of what they thought of her or her method.

hi regard to her method, she was indeed strict in requesting
those who wished to apply it in her name to follow her directions,
'fhey would otherwise confuse the issue with regard to her own
experiment. However, her contribution to human knowledge had a
broader scope, and has had a wider influence, than what is generally
known as Montessori education. Even if we consider only the ap-
plicatioms of the latter, it is clear thiit her position as a pedagogue is
unique compared with that of other educators. A l)rief survey of
the Montessori movement shows growth inid development in three
different directions. Its liorizontal growth is evident from the
Montessori schools and training institutes found throughout the
world. Montessori's books have been translated into twenty-two
languages, and interest in her work v^ntf ties to spread. But these
achievements are only geographicui! More interesting is the
ramification of applications of her method beyond the realm of
regular school education. The Montessori approach is followed in
homes, in cliild care centers, in work with the liospit;di/ed. the
maladjusted, the crippled and otherwise handicapped children, in
teaching the socially deprived and the mentally retarded, in
educating the blind, and in cond)ating analphabetism in adults. Its

rite CuJitrihutiun of Miiria Motitcssori

restriction in some arc;is is ill so interesting. Montessori education
luis l)een forl)idclen in totalitarian countries. Montessori schools
were clojied in Russia after the revolution* and in Germany and
Italy at the height of imperialism, hew, if any. educational systems
have received this kind of attention from politicians.

The vertical growth of the Montessori movenient is clear from
the extension of its application from the uphringing of infants to
tile education of children up to university age. and the only reason
the Montessori approach is not in use in universities is hecause no
opportunity to put it into practice at that level has occurred. The
\h)ntL\ssori method is applicahle in all social strata among the
population of the ghettos and slums, among the middle class,
among th.e very rich, and in pnhlic as well as in private institutions,

A third direction in wliieh growth has occurred is through time.
Hie Montessori movement has. since its inception, retained its
spontaneous character, its freshness, and its stamina, notwithstand-
ing nuich direct opposition. In many areas where it had flonrishecK
wars or changes in the cultural climate paralyzed its course, or even
eliminated it altogether, for long periods. Sooner or later, however,
it reappeared with new impetus and strength, A typical example is
its revival in the United States, After having hcen ahandoned and
largely forgotten for many years, tlie Montessori approach was
revived in lUc late I9S0s, There are over three thousand Montessori
schools in the United States today, and the number increases
rapidly each year. Montessori education is equally in demand in the
developing countries of the world. It appears, then, to have a
promising future; its major concern at the moment is not one of
gaining acceptance, hut of training sufficient numbers of persons to
cope adequately with its own growth

What 1 have hoped to point out here is the exceptional
position of Montessori education in the pedagogical world, 1 do not
believe that there is any other method of education that can serve
the objectives of all the different situations I have mentioned.
Clearly, then, there nmst be something unusual about this one. It is
certainly not that it can offer empirical evidence of success in all
those fields in which it has been adopted, Montessori originallv
worked only with sniall children, Later, she also worked with those
in elementary schools, but her pedagogical experience stopped

K1)UC:.VH()N K)K HUMAN DKVKl.orMKM

tlim'. Nor is it 1jcc;uisc licr views iirc so clearly fori- jlatcd or easily
uiKlcrstood that her approach has such wide appeal. She was not a
thecreticiaii. She did not construct a differentiated theoretical
framework that paved the way for later applications of her work.
On the contrary, in her struggle to give expression to phenomena
that did not fit any existing theories, she often borrowed terms
from them, dissociating thcni from their frame of reference and
using them in her own context. 'Hiis has been the source of many
niisinterpretatioiis of her ideas by her critics. FVom the start, the
Moiitessori movement has been accompanied by vivid discussions
of her method ending in a variety of divergent views, ranging from
strong opposition to fervent approval. An anthology of the most
relevant of these contrasting opinions has recently been published
in Germany. > What impresses one most in it is the renewed
actuality of the method throughout the years.

What is it in Maria Montessori s work that can explain all these
phenomena? If we turn to her for enlightenment, we find that her
own conclusion was both simple and puzzling. She maintained that
she had "discovered'' the c'hild. If, reflecting upon forty years'
experience, Montessori condensed the essence of her contribution
into this one phrase, then it is important to try to understand what
she meant by it.

One of the striking qualities in Maria Monte.ssori's personality
was her deep respect for creaticMi. She neve:, ceased to marvel at its
manifestations. In iier philosophical outlook, man's' cosmic task is
to continue, collectively, the work of cr*'ation on earth, to discover
with his intelligence the endless latent possibilities of the world's
creations and make them manifest in new forms. It is in this way
that num. creates his cnltural eiivirpninent. 'I'his coiiceptiqii qf^
encompasses his potential greatness as a creator, as well as his
smallness and linntations in relation to God and Mis creation. This
deep-rooted conviction about human destiny, based on her faith in
God and man. gave Dr. Montessori the moral strength to pursue
her objectives in life. It was also the basis of the humility and
respect with which she approached the world and her fellow men
throughout her life.

It was in this spirit that she undertook furtlier scientific study of
children. They were to her fellow human beings who should be

ilic Contribution of Maria Montessori

consiclcrc'.l sucli. '11 lis iltti^lKlc frcal licr of the conmion prejudices
adults liold to\v;ird cliildrci?; in id eventually enabled her to discover
the extremely important function of tli€ child in the forina'non of
the lur.v.jii personality. This discr.very was not made by philosophi-
cal methods. It was the direct result of earcful, patient, and
systematic observations of the spontaneous behavior of children in
a prepared environment adapted to their needs- of a scientific
experiment based on previous experiences and pen'cnied with the
detached involvement typical of a scientifically grooiwcd mind.
Montessori s philosophical outlook, however, was responsible for
her ability to see beyond the superficial uranifcstations of tlic
children's behavior she observed. She distilled from tliem b;isic
phenomena relevant to human development and integrated them
into a comprehensive and coherent vision of man that took into
account the full complexi'iV of his existence on earth.

It was this anthropological orientation in its widest sense that
determined Moiitessori\s revolutionary conception of education as
an aid to life, and it is to my mind the most valuable aspect of the
spiritual inheritance she has left us.

Professor N. Pcrquiii of the University of Nijmegeii, in high-
lighting Montessori's contribution as the starting point of a new
vision of education, remarks in this connection, **\Vithout knowing
it, she made possible an encounter between pedagogy, modern
psychology, and sociology, even theology and philosophy.*' ^ Mon-
tessori's aim, from the start, had been to contri'-?.^*'; to a com-
prehensive science of man. This science could not, acC' ^ nng to her,
be based on any single discipline, but should result from the
concerted endeavors of different scientists studying human beings
from whatever angles modern science permit -ed and the integra-
tion of their findings into a sufficiently broad and differentiated
conceptual matrix. This integration should not be done in an
eclectic manner, which would only confuse the issues. Rather, it
should be based on a tentative blueprint eiicoiiipassiiig the
different fundamental aspects of the human situation. This global
model should be related to findings from the different branches of
science, and the modifications indicated by an investigation of their
interrelationships should be made.

Although this pluralistic approach is by no means currently

KnUCATlON rOH ^UMA^^ nKVKl.Ol'NtKS I

accepted, tciulciicies toward a more articulate investigation ac-
knowledging important differences in luunan l)eliavior, and aiming
at an integration of tlic relevant findings, arc slowly wiiMiing groimd
in the lunnan'scienccs.-^ Montessori herself contributed a bhieprint
for this investigation by the various sciences. One of its aiajor
aspects is the adaptive and constructive role of tlie child in human
life. In one of her writings Montessori states that

the great power of man is that lie adapts to every part of the
et'ivironnieiit and that he modifies it. For tliis reason every man that
is born must pr^pnre his personality anew. There is no hereditary
adaptation in individuals; each nmst develop -'unetliing wliicli
corresponds to it. At birtli a child does uGt have the behavior
characteristics of the group into wiiicli lie is horn; he has to create
and prepare them. He has to learn their language and the customs
and the use of their implements, etc. In otlicr words, while
developing himself he uncoiiseiously develops his own adaptation to
his environment. To understand the child's tendencies witli the
purpose of educating him. we must :ee man in correlation with his
cnvironineut and how his adaptation to it is created.'

1'his implies that human development i^ tlie result of an uncon-
scious creative activity of the individual, and that this process is
otdy possible in association with others. It is only in the connnunity
that man's potentialities can be reahzcd. This is the work of the
child, guided from within by special sensitivities inherent in the
various stages of development.

Children need more than adults' love and protection to perform
this double task of adaptation and construction. They need their
active help. This implies tliat education is a fundamental aspect of
the formation of man- a concept that will be dealt with at. greater
length in later chapters. It is sufficient here to mention that
Montessori's conception of the nature of human experience
envisaged the complexity of human beings and the numerous
factors determining their behavior and further existence in real life,
without ever loiing sight of the unity of their personalities. Of
course, she was not able to study all aspects of human development
herself. Several of her ideas were inferred from her own experiences,
others were conclusions based on her work, or conjectures based on

'ihc Coutrihution of Maria Montensori

intuition, or jncrc glinuncrs of po.ssil)lc avenues of furtlicr investiga-
tion. It is for tliis reason that the term l)lneprint luis !)een used witli
regard to iicr tlieoretical fornuilations.

I consider it significant tluit Montessori's model of deveic^pnient
corresponds in tlic main with that arrived a?- by psyclioaualysts. In
my experience,' psyclioanalysiv is the only branch of empirical
science that has accepted the challenge of studying man with this
type of composite frame of reference. Neither Montcssori nor
psycliQanaly.siN tries to simplify or reduce the complexity of the
picture o nuni to fit a special theory. Instead, both .ickiiowlcdge
the diversity of -factors detcrniining human devdopuient and
behavior. 'I'l>ey*endeavor to cope with them in concordance with
the findings obtained by observations of spontaneous behavior in a
specially prep:^rcd setting. 1*he .sititation in both cases is so
structured that it activates certain aspects of behavior that would*
not otherwise manifest them.sclves with the same clarity and
contiiuiity. 1*his makes it possible to study plienoniena not noticed
before.

The situation is a complicated one in the sense that the same
person nuist function as an observer and as a participant in the
relationship that en.sues. Another set of l^eliavioral factors is
brought into play by the dynamics of the situation: in the case of
the classroom, those pertaining to the teacher. In addition, the
classroom situation involves a wnole^roup of ot. "rs as well. These
arc necessary complications, hcvvevcr, tor human behavior can oidy
be studied in the setting of hu aiau relations if it is to be considered
from the viewpoint of spontaneous development. We cannot avoid
this cirennistance.

In both the psychoanalytic and the Mpntessori approach, the
" r ela tiol i o f "obseiH ^r- pa r t ici paii t a i id pa r ti cipa li t sHoVi 1 d be one of
alba nee ba.sed on nuitual respect and confidence. The observer-
parl'icipant should be carefully trained. He should be interested in
the' phenomena he is observing and understand them. He should
allow situations to develop freely, abstaining from intervention
when it is not necessary and acting appropriately when it is. Mis
actions should be determined by the situation and its objectives,
never by his ovvn impulses or wishes, which niiglit interfere with the
process at hand. Mis aim should be to remove obstacles that inhibit

KDUCATION KOH HUMAN DKVKLOPMKNT

tlic natural course of t.'vc!its. to promote iiisiglits tliat furtlicr it, iJnd
to lid'p work tlicse tlirou;^- I lis attitndc should he one of cinpathy>
cooperation, and patience.

Of course, the objectives of psychoanal\'sis and Montessori
education are quite different, as is the uiateri;tl that is studied.
Their findings, however, tend to confirm and to coniplenvcnt each
other. It is especially significant that the n^odels to which they lead
have a similar structure, Montessori herself explicitly identified her
method with psychoanalysis. Regarding modern pedagogy, which
had previously been limited to the study of external phenomena,
she remarked, "To borrow medical terminology, we might say that
it WAS an attempt to cure the symptoms without seeking the
essential but obscure cause." She then proceeded to illustrate the
limitations of symptomatic therapy, contrasting it with psycho-
analysis, which dpals with the causes of behavior.-'^ This similarity
between Montessori education and psychoanalysis may, inciden-
tally, explain the striking parallel in the vicissitudes each has
encountered.

Montessori's view of the specificity of mankind as a species
differs from that of the sciences, even psychology. To my kiiowl-
(.dge» it is only that train of psychological thought based on
philosophical anthropology, the influence of which is mainly
confined to German-speaking countries, which departs explicitly
from this assumption. Empirical psychology in general does not,
Montessori'sr position in relation to it requires, therefore, some
further consideration. Her medical studies gave a sound biological
basis to her later conceptions of man's development and behavior,
but they in no way shook her firm conviction of his specificity in
relation to other living beings. One finds it postulated even in her
doctor^s thesis as the fraine of reference for "an otherwise piire
ehnical psychiatric treatise.*^ In her very last book she still held this
position, stating that

What causes ns to distinguish between species is always their
differences, never their likeness. What constitutes another species is
always something new. . . . The human species has a double
embryonic life. ... Ft is built to a new design, and has a fre^h destiny
in relation to tiie other creatures. . . . This is the point at which we

lite Contribution of Maria Montessori

snust pjiusc, and make ;i fresh start in all our studies of child
development and of mun's psycliological sidc.^

Modern psycliology luis not yet made tliis start, altliongli sonic
tentative recent developments seem to indicate that it may yet do
so. In the main, however, psychology is still strongly influenced by
American behaviorism, which explicitly ignores the existence of a
fmidamental difference between man and other living beings,
Behaviorisnrs impact on iiiDdern learning theory is particularly
strong. But whatever merits this approach may have in highlighting
certain features of human behavior that are common to other
animals, and which can therefore, in principle, be studied through
experiments with the latter, it is too limited in scope and tc o one-
sided to further our understanding of the human being as such. It
perforce excludes from investigation all aspects of his personality
that cannot be encompassed within its artificially restricted frame
of reference, if its findings are not iiitegrafred into a more
comprehensive scientific conception of iiiaii, modern psychology
and modern learning theory will have no contribution to offer in
the solution of the ever-increasing social problems with which
humanity is confronted in our technological era. These will always
bring us back to the study of the individual personality in its own
right. If one considers man as an anima! and explicitly ignores those
fundamental differences that distinguish the one from the other,
one will convincingly demonstrate that man is, for all practical
pur])ose.s\ just a naked ape, as Desmond Morris has so eiitcr-
tainingly demonstrated,^ However, the resulting conception of man
Will be restricted and distorted, and therefore unscientific.

In seeking to understand the uniqueness of mankind as a
species; a distinction should be made between growth and develop-
ment, These two concepts are often confused or misused in modern
psychology, leading to ambiguous or arbitrary conclusions in some
studies. For example, consider the findings of Coghill,^ who has
made such a marvelous analysis of his concise anatomical studies in
relation to behavior, and Bruner,*^ who has carefully studied
relevant patterns in the unfolding of intelligence as a basis for a
theory of instruction. Both use these two concepts alternatively,
writing of the growth when, in fact, they should refer to the process

KnUCAlION FOK HUMAN DKVKl.OPMKNT

involved as clcvclopmeiit. 1 do not believe that this is because they
would not understand, or could not accept, the difference between
the two. Nor do I believe that their choice of one term rather than
the other is random, although they may not be conscious of their
motivations. Whatever the case niay be. the terms they use
influence their conclusions, even if in different degrees, and affect
their contribution to a better understanding of human behavior.

What is the difference between growth and development?
Growth implies only an enlargement; or self-nniltiplication of an
existing form. Carrel describes, for example, the cellular colonies
proceeding from a particle of the heart of the embryo of a chicken,
which continued to nniltiply for a period of twenty-three years in a
controlled ^environment. The modifications in the original are only
quantitative, not qualitative.** Development is growth directed
toward the production of an organism in accordance with a
predetermined design. What exists at the start is only the design.
Hiis design includes an organizing and integrative principle that
determines the course of growth and maintains the unity of the
organism throughout the growth process. It does not include the
form the organism will take. To create this form requires qualita-
tive, as well as quantitative, transformations of the original, and
hence an interaction with the environment. Furthermore, it
involves an anticipation of future needs. That is. there exist
potentialities for the formation of special behavior patterns related
to future functions that may or may not be realized. An example is
the impressive development of the embryo from conception to
birth. During a relatively short period of time, an infinitesimal cell
becomes a being capable of a totally different form of life. To talk
in extremes, if one used the term growth for this process, one would
be reverting to the preformation theories adhered to before the ■
onset of endjryology; if one used it for postnatal development, one
would be reverting to the theories of faculty-psychology. Of course,
nobody would do this today. However, the idea that developmental
and niaturational aspects of behavior are predetermined, and
therefore exclusively the result of the growth proces.s. is wide-
spread. The counterpart -of this idea is that the aspect of behavior
complete in the embryonic stage, nian accomplishes in his postnatal
conditioning and instruction. 71ie two scientists mentioned above.

'I he Contribution of Maria Montassori

; Briiiicr iiiid Cogliill. Ikivc now iiccc])tecl the fact tluit the creative
process comes into phiy in growth and learning. I'hey were
reluctant to do so/however. and only the evidence obtained from
their own investigations convin'^ed them it was necessary.

Montcssori's insight in this connection is quite fundamental
and indeed simple. At birth man is relatively inunaturc compared
with other primates. This is a statement of fact. Consequently, part
of the "process of growth and development that these animals
complete in the embryonic stage, man accomplishes in his postnatal
state, when he is ex])osed to influences from the outside world. I'his
is; wliat Montcssori means when she refers to the double eiwbryonic
life of the human species. She sees this further development as a
continuation of the embryonic process, during which the individual
actively participates in the proces.s and it is related to the outer
environment. It is therefore a psychological order. The postnatal
stage is a formative period of intense activity during which the child
must create in him.self the basic structure of his personality.
Nothing is preestablishecl. The child has only the potentialities
needed to give form and content to his psychic life and, subse-
quently, to construct the basic patterns of behavior necessary to
function independently in his environment.

The fact that this stage of development is still so little
understood is, in my opinion, a paramount obstacle to the progres.s
of the behavioral sciences. Biological evidence corroborating this
principle in embryonic life was produced in 1940 by Cogbill. IVIaria
Montcssori attached nuich importance to it. It seemed as if Coghill
had reached conclusions similar to hers when he wrote, "Man is,
indeed, a mechanism, but he is a mechanism which, within his
limitations of life, sensitivity, and growth, is creating and operating

himself.': „; ' ;

Becau.se of his relative freedom from heredity, man nuist create
within himself the organizing principle for directing his behavior.
In a profound and detailed study of this subject. Dr. Andre Berge
explains how man can only find his way in a world that he can
conceive of as structured, physically as well as psychically. Man
spontaneously classifies chaos according to a certain order. He can
eventually replace this order with another order, but he cannot do
without some kind of order. Dr. Berge sees in man's basic need for

KDUC.VMON lOH HUMAN I>K\ KI.OPMKM"

on\cT tlic iiiiivcrsiil root of the iiioriil ])hciu^uicnoii. ;i pliciioincnoii
'fluit iiiitiallv' appears as an orgaiii/iug principle. It is cvcntnalK
incar:uitLcl in the moral apparatus of man and pcrnn'ts us U) exist
with a niininiinn of damage to others and [o onrseKes. It ean,
moreover, be the source of a s])eeial kind of ])leasnre; that of doing
what we believe to he right, llenee, morality is not simply an
internali/.ed penal code. The great motor of our moral apparatus is
love. This love is shifted, more or less, from the senses to the spirit;
but it is nonetheless the same force that takes an individual out of
himself and toward something for which he is capable of forgetting
l)ersoiial interests.'"*

The acquisition by an infant of its mother tongue is the best
demonstration of that special cpiality {)f the child in the fi-rst years
of life that Montessori calls the absorbent mind. **A special
mechanism exists for language," she writes. '*N{)t the |){)ssession of
language in itself, but the possession, of this mechanism which
enables njen to make languages oi' their own, is what distinguishes
the human species." ^ * hAery normal child is able to speak its native
tongue at the age of four. The actual language is dependent on the
environnieut of the child, and there are iudivichial differences in
the moment the first intentional words arc spoken and in subse-
cjuent i)rogress and accuracy. I lowever, the characteristic ability of
an infant to master a language in this intensive way is universal. An
adult no longer possesses this ability. Plicnomeuologically, there is
an essential difTereuce between the infant's conquest of its uu)tlier
tongue and an adult's learning of a new language, which entails
effort and determiiiatiou. An infant learns a language playfully, and
it becomes part of him. This miracle can only he aelu'eved through
some inner urge— a special sensitivity and a heightened direction of
activity.^'*

The embryonic state of the human infant lasts approximately
three years. At this time the human personality reaches a first level
of integration. In the next three years a conscious elaboration and
enrichment of what has been acquired unconsciously takes phice.
Tlie type of mind i ; tJie .same, but the child is more susceptible to
adult influence with regard to learning. In the first period this
influence is niaiidy tlic result of unconscious mechanisms deter-
mined by the emotional development of the child, which, in turn.

I'he Contribution of Maria Montessori 1>

is dcpciiclciit on tljc cliiUrs close rc.iitioiisliip with the. adults who
care for it. Introjcctioii. imitation, and identification arc of
particular importance in the formation of hehavior patterns and
the acqnisition of cultural attitudes.

Ill the second period this cojithiiu?s, but adults are now
consciously acknowledged by the child as the source of information
on social and cultural aspects of its existence. Because of its growing
interest in these, the child turns spontaneously to adults with its
queries. If it is not rejected, it responds with feelings of gratitude,
trust, aiul respect for these superior beings who are willing to help it
orient itself in it.s world. Its development continues to be guided
from within by sensitive periods— time spans in which the child is
sensitive to an incredible degree to a particular activity or interest.
Discovered by Montcssori in the early part of the century, these
sensitive periods were completely ignored by academic psychol-
ogists until the late 1960s, when it was noted that niodeni research
on the acquisition of linguistic skills had introduced the concept to
account for data that could not otherwise be explained.^**

Sensitive periods occur throughout the whole period of youth,
lliis process is so long in man simply because all aspects of his
personality nuist be formed by his own experiences as he interacts
with the environment within a given connnunity. The process of
growth, maturation, and individuation, the result of the actualiza-
tion of individual potentialities, is slow. These potentialities must
be adapted and internalized in accordance with the developmental
pattern typical of the human, species. This cannot be achieved
without the help of adults, help which is only available if love is the
binding force in their relationship with the child.

Work is often considered as something forced on human beings
by circumstances. Many forms of work in modern society certainly
confirm this view. It may also have been applicable when self
preservation inevitably involved work. However, work is also linked
with man's creativity and is a universal phenomenon characteristic
of the human species. One of Montessori's discoveries was that
there are potentialities in the human personality that correspond to
all such universal phenomena, directing the growing individual to
perform .specific activities, T*lic experiences that result from these
activities are needed to prepare him to perform functions that will

KPUCAIION FOR llirMAN DKVKl.OPMFNT

Idc relcvjiit Jt j lutcr level of intcgrutioii. This principle of indirect
prepjrjtion is ju esseiitijl feutiirc of development. Ft is indirect
prepurjtion thut eventually enables an individnal to participate as
an independent adult in those activities typical of the hnnian
species. The earliest roots of development ine formed in the fir.st
years of life. These are the most important because, like language,
they become part of the child. S ince these developmental processes
are nnconscions, it is difficult to change them once the personality
has been consolidated at the end of the first formative period, at
about six years of age, and even more difficult after puberty.

The impact of early experiences with regard to emotional
development has been fully confirmed by psychoanalytic studies, ft
is Montessori's achievement to have created conditions that
permitted children to manifest their natural developmental pro-
pensities as part of ongoing working behavior. She gave children an
appropriate environment and guided freedom within it so that they
could act according to their inner needs, rhythm, and tempo, and as
a result, they exhibited characteristics not generally attributed to
them. These included deep and prolonged concentration, the
repetition of exercises for their own sake, an urge to make a
niaxiinmn effort, control of movements, a sense of order, and other
phenomena. Perhaps the most astounding result of her approach
was the intensity with which children approached activities. 'Hieir
wliolc persouidities were involved in them, and it was obvious that
they were finding in their experiences the kind of pleasure and
satisfaction that (ndy results wlien basic needs are gratified. 'f1ie
aim of these activities wjs not to be found in the outer world, but
within the qhildren. They were forming their own personalities,
constructing the men and women they were one day to become,
liven after a forceful internaticnial campaign by Montessori for half
a century, this dirrerencc in the aim of children's activities and
adults* activities is still generally disregarded. Children's activities
are still evaluated primarily from an adult point of view. Kven those
dedicated to the study of developjincntal psychology cannot
sufficiently free themselves from the ingrained idea that a child is
an inferior being. I'lierefore. they cannot discern the characteristics
that can easily be observed when one is able to approacii the child
as a human being in his own right.

Ihc Contribution of Maria Montessori

It is clear from an analysis of 1' .tiian devdopincnt that
education is an indispensable function in the formation of man.
Montessori has pointed out that man's present predicament is
caused by the lack of balance between him and his environment.*'
Education is the only means uiiereby we can hope to alter this
situation. However, education can only help if it is reformed, if it is
based on a better understanding of the human being, and, in
particular, of the function of the child with regard to the formation
of the human personality.

1'lie panoramic view of Maria Monte.ssori's fundamental and
original contribution to human knowledge that 1 have tried to give
in this chapter necessarily leaves out a wealth of detail and perhajos
crowds too many ideas into a few pages. 1 hope, however, that it
will serve as a base for the succeeding chapters, which deal in more
detail with the relationship between Montessori a!id the sciences,
the Montessori approach to work, and Montessori and traditional
education. Chapter 2 is devoted to the Montessori materials, in
particular their psychological background and their role in the
social developuieut of the child. It also attempts to clarify
Montessori's position on play, which is so often misunderstood.
Later chapters treat the role of education in today's world and the
contemporary revolution in values as it relates to Montessori
education.

NOTES

1. Giintcr Scliulz Bcncsch. "Montessori." in Wege der Forschuni;,
vol. X.\ (Dariiistaclt: Wivscnsduiftliclic Buchgcscllscliaft. 1970).

2. N. Percjuin. S.).. in Op zoek naar een pada^ogisch denken, ). ).
Ronicn. td. (Moogvcld Institnte).

^. In psychology, a erouir.g discontent with behaviorism, learning
tiieor\', and ncopositivism is leading to a more Innnan approach. See. for
example.'. C KlnckiioIuK .\h>ror for Man (New York: McGraw-Hill. 19-49).
and J*'. K. Kmcry and K. I.. Trist. Towards a Social Ecology: Contextual
Appreciation of the Future in the Present (New '^'ork: Plenum. 197>).

4. Maria .Montessori. The Meanini^ of Adaptation (.Amsterdam:
A.M.I. Conunnnic:itions, 1961),

5. Maria Montess(jri. 'Fhe Child in the Fanuly (C Chicago: Regncry,
197(1,, pp. 112'n.

KnUCAIIOS FOR HUMAN' DKVKl.OPMKN'T

6. Maria Montcssori. Contributo cUnico alio studio delle al-
lucinazioni a contenuto antagonistico (Rome. 1S96).

7. Maria Montcssori. The Absorbent Mind (New York: Holt.
Rincliart and Winstt.M. 1%7) pp. 60-61.

S. Desmond Morris. The Saked Ape (Nt\v/^'ork: McGraw-Hill.
1%S).

9. G. IL Gogliill. Anatomy and the Problem of Behavior (New York
and London: Ilafner. 196*1).

10. Jerome S. Brnner. Toward a Theory of Instruction (Cambridge.
Mass.: Harvard ' University Press. 1966).

11. Alexis Carrel. Man, the Unknow'n, re\ . ed. (New York: Harper &
Brothers. 19^9).

12. Coglnll. p. 110.

n. Andre Berge. Les maladies de la vcrtue (Paris: Petite Bibliotheque
Payot. 1960). pp. >M0.

14. Montessori. The Absorbent Mind, p. ^7,

Iv With regard to the acquisition of language I particularly wish to
recommend Kric H. Lenneherg's Biological Foundations of Language,
with appendices by Noam Chomsky and Otto Marx (New York: Wiley.
1967). It is a challenging, original, erudite study that corroborates many of
.Maria Montessori's views on this subject with a wenitli of evidence and
offers ample opportunity for a scientific discussion of others.

16 H. C. J. Dnykcr and R. \^iyk, Leerboek der Psychologie (Gro-
ningcn. NetheHands- W olters-Noordhoof, 1969). p. 281. "gevoelige per-
iode/*

17. Maria Montessori, The Formation of Man (Adyar, India: Ka-
labhetra. i9>=5),pp. 14-17.

THE MONTESSORI
MATERIALS: Their
Function and Relationship
to the Child^s Worky Play,
and Social Life

Moiitessori saw education as a means vvliercby cliildren might
develop their personalities so as to eventually achieve a mature and
independent adulthood. She designed her edueational material to
aid them in this endeavor. This fundamental function of the
material is generally disregarded when it is compared with the
equipment found in most prepriniary classrooms. Disappointment
with the Montessori material results because the comparisons that
are made are only superficial. This superficial approach is encour-
aged by adherence to cither of the two main trends of current
thought in education. One of these holds that young children
should be free to express their urges and fantasies without restraint,
thus experiencing a niininunn of frustration. Objects should mainly
ser\e to offer possibilities of gratification. In handling them, the
children will also discover some of their objective qualities, but this
is more or less a side issue. Learning at this early stage is held to
hamper the uninhibited development of the child's personality,
and therefore to be something that should not be enforced by
organized teaching. I*>om this point of view, the Montessori
material appears too rigid.

llie second approach to education popular today considers alk
development an integral part of the learning process, and all
learning to be the result of conditioning, deeonditioning, or
reconditioning originally simple reflexes. Knowledge can therefore

KDUCATlOV FOR HUMAN DKVEl.OPMKNr

be giiincd from experiments witli rats unci otlier animals, and then
applied to liuman beings in a learning situation. Altliougli the
Innnan organism achieves a higher level of differentiation, the
chains of reactions encountered basically correspond to the same
mechanical model. Whatever new theoretical constructs nnv. be
envisaged uuist obey the laws inherent in this basic theory. This is
considi'red to be true even before the switch to the exprrimenta-
tion and observation of humans is made. Any imagiwablc skill
within the abilities of the nervous system at a given stage of
maturation can thus be acquired by the individual, providing an
appropriate conditioning based on the accepted theoretical laws
can be undertaken. Those accepting this view will find the
Montessori material lacking in detailed systemi/.ation; for instance,
in the programming of instructions. They will, therefore, consider it
too limited in scope for proper learning.

This is an incomplete and oversimplified exposition of two
widely accepted approaches in education, but \ hope it will serve to
make my point concerning Montessori education clear, ft does
include the more fundamental viewpoints of these schools of
thought. However, they arc seen only as parts of the basic
educational pattern, a pattern tliat is derived from a broader
conception of human development, 'f'he discussion above also
illustrates an important point concerning education in general.
Whether it is being explicitly postulated or not, the aims of
education and the... methods used to achieve these aims are
deterinmed' by the psychological matrix resulting from the under-
lying general conception of human development.

Montessori actually presents a third, more comprehensive
conception of education. As I have mentioned, she sees a basic
biological difference between men and animals. T'his difference is
cleady visible in the patterns underlying the beliavior of individual
Innnan beings, which are not predominantly determined by hered-
ity. Man must build these inner structures from which he evolves
his per.sona: behavior during his lifetime, and from his own
experiences. In aninnils, instinct predominates and otiier functions
are subordinate. An animal's general behavior and the relation of
its species to its specific environment are included in the pattern of
instinct with which it is born, and are therefore hereditary, fn man,
that which corrcspo.vds to this aspect of the animal instinct

'riie Montcssori Materials

niateriiili/.cs only after birtli. It is an inner crciition acconiplislicd In-
man in tlic conrsc of liis yontli. wliicli is more protracted tlian tliat
of any otlier living being. Tins creation takes place in a rehitionsliip
of dependence on tlie eonnnnnity in wln'cli the individual develops,
and from winch he cannot he considered a separate entit\ .

However, this does not imply that man is a product of his
cnviroinnent, or that his development is left to chance. It is. rather,
a complex process directed hy inner drives that succeed one -mother
at certain periods in his life. These drives are closely interrelated
vvitli tlic sequences of maturation and develojnnent. as well as with
outer reality. Tliese iimer directives, however, are of a different
order than animal instincts. Montessori called them "guiding
instincts." They indicate the route man's mental development will
take. Because this development can only take place witliin society,
tlic cultural values of the time will help define its form.

Inner development nmst juecedc independence. Therefore, it is
tins inner development that is the child's major task. To accom-
plish it, the child is equipped with certain potentialities that do not
e.xist, as such, in adnlts. One of these Monte.ssori called "the
absorbent mind." Through their close emotional ties with those
who take care of them, children actively absorb, during the first
years of life, the basic patterns they encounter in their social
environment. From these their personal behavior will take shape.
This pronounced sensitivity to and eagerness to assimilate impres-
sions from the outside exists not only in relation to other living
beings and their behavior, bnt encompasses everything that goes to
make up the child's world. His emotional relationship with the
external world is so intense that it strongly inlRuences his whole
being. This is why Montessori has called the child hi this phase of
development the "spiritual embryo.'* In later stages of develop-
ment, children are led toward maturity by "sensitive periods" tlvjit
stimulate them to carry out certain activities and to acquire certain
experiences. These are necessary for the further structuring of their
own personalities in relation to their environment. The jjo.ssibilitics
offered by the snrronndiiig world determine whether this pre-
disposition toward new experiences with their resulting cnriclnuent
of the personality, is fully stimulated, merely used in jxirt, or even
quenched.

According to Montessori, education should be an aid to life.

KDI'CAI ION FOR HUMAN DKVKI.OPMKN F

Tlicrcforc, it iiiiist he an iiistruiiiciit for tlic support aiicl guidaiicu
of the child in tlic iiioiiiiiiiLMital task of constructing tlic foundation
of Ills personality. 'I'liree factors determine the course of this inner
construction. The first is the child's own psyche, with its specific
needs, potentialities, and sensitive periods, wiiich determines the
pace and direction of its inner development. This development
does not occur in straight lines, hut shows fluctuations and
individual differences. The second is the cultural connnuuity, with
its standards, hahits, patterns of heliavior, ideals, religion, and
knowledge of all other aspects of its civilization. It is the prevailing
order of this connnunity that permits the child to achieve an inner
harmony. The third is the material world with all its ohjective
qualities, to which man nnist adapt himself in order to he able to
utilize his own faculties freely.

*['he cnvironnicMt of uiodern man is highly differentiated and
complex. .V being confronted for the first time by the present world
could not help but fee! confused. Yet a child, once it has left the
confinement of its mother's wond), must eventually conic to terms
with this world. It can only do this through experiences. Adults
nmst give it the freedom to gain this experience in its own way. At
the sauic time, they nnist help it, when possible, to explore and
assimilate its world and the principles prevailing in it. They nnist,
therefore, construct a bridge between their world and that of the
child. Moiitessori education provides this bridge through the
prepared environment. It is here that the Montessori material plays
a fundamental role. The idea is not to reproduce the adult world in
miniature, or to distort reality into a make-believe paradise in
which cmldreirs wishes and fantasies are the only things considered.
Rather, the prepared cnvironiiieut should bring the wodd at large,
and thus the adult world, within reach of the child at whatever
stage of development it is at a given inonient.

In order to achieve this, the prepared environment should meet
certain general requirements. First, it should be attractive, aesthet-
ically and practicallv, from the standpoint of children of different
age groups, but reflect that amount of organization and order
necessary for a eoninuniity to function properly. The rules used to
achieve this should be valid for all. They ought to be derived not
from the adult's wish to impose his authority, 1)ut, as in regulating

The MoTitvasori Materials

traffic, from a desire to allow every individual freedom of indepen-
dent activity as long as his freedom does not interfere with that of
others. The prepared environment should also stinnilate the
interest of the children in the kind of purposeful activities they
need to further their general development. It nnist also be so
arranged that they can carry out these activities in their own way
and at their own rate. The environment should not be centered on
a single function or skill, but call to a child's whole personality.
Moreover, there should be ample opportunity in the environment
for tlie child to practice, work through, and integrate with previous
skills any new function or skill that has been acquired. This should
also be true with regard to general behavior. Children should feel
comfortable in the prepared environment. Their limitations as well
as their possibilities should be taken into consideration in creating
it. It should be made to measure for them so that they have the
opportunity to behave independently whenever they have learned
to do so. .'\dults should guide and help the child when necessary,
but not unnecessarily. If, for example, toilet training has been
successful and children can be independent in this regard, they
should not have to ask the aid of an adult just because the utilities
available are too big for them. These should be adapted to the
children's smaller stature. So should the furniture and any other
objects in the environment that are there for their use. If the
environment is not so arranged, the children are constantly
confronted with tasks wliich they see adults perform and which
they know they could do also, if they were not too small in relation
to the objects involved. They may coine to regard adults, therefore,
as powerful rivals instead of models. Finally, tlie prepared environ-
ment should contain material purposely constructed and selected
to provide the children with the means of having certain basic-
experiences pertinent to their development. The Montessori mate-
rial is not purely didactic, nor does it consist of toys, although the
children lenrn from it and play with it, and, what is more, love
doing so.

The Montessori material is only one of several devices by which
the Montessori princijjles find expression. Now that its position has
been established within the general frame of reference of the other
two approaches to education, we can consider its special function.

KnilC.VnON FOR HUMAN DK\ Kl.()l»MKN r

When used properly, tliis material serves two main purposes. On
the one hand, it furthers the inner development of the child:
specifically, the indirect preparation that must precede the develop-
ment of any new ego function. On the other, it helps the child to
acquire new perspectives in its exploration of the objective world. It
makes it aware of certain qualities of the objects, their interrela-
tionships, existing principles of differentiation .within a given
category, organizational sequences, and special techniques for
handling the objects. It challenges the intelligence of the child,
who is first intrigued and later fully absorbed by the principles
involved. If a spark is lit, a principle discovered, it awakens in the
child an urge to exercise its newly acquired insight through endless
repetitions of the action that led to it. When the child has fully
mastered the principle involved, it spontaneously proceeds to apply
it in handling all kinds of objects. The material does not, in the first
place, teach children factual knowledge. Instead it makes it possible
for them to reorganize their knowledge according to new principles.
This increases their capacity for learning. Because the material
serves this function, Montessori referred to it as materialized
abstractions.

I should like to illustrate these two main aspects of the material
with some examples. All ego functions, like perception, thinking,
languar^e, the comprehension of objects, and the coordination of
n)Ovenients and learning processes in general, require a long period
of indirect preparation before they emerge as integrated aspects of
the personality. This results in certain activities on the part of
children which make no sense to adults. Often, children abandon
themselves to these activities with such tenacity that it is very
difficult to distract thein.

I once witnessed the following scene. A small girl who was not
yet able to walk, but who could move around quite adequately,
palled herself up by gripping the side of the living room coffee
table. She then began to investigate a little vase of flowers on top of
it. She held herself upright, supporting herself by putting her left
hand on the table, and started to pull the flowers, one by one, out
of the vase with her right hand, putting them on the table. While
thus engaged, she exhibited all the seriousness and concentration
one expects from a surgeon in an operating theater. The water on

'ihc MontcssoTi Materials

tlie doily did not distnrl) licr. nor did licr inotlier. wlio enjoyed
looking at this pcrfornunicc bccaasc of the intensity of pnrpose it
expressed. As soon ns all the flowers were on the table, tlie.little girl
started pntting them back in the vase, one by one, with the greatest
eare. When she was finished she eoninienced to remove them again.
This had been going on for some time when 1 entered the room.
The little girl disregarded my entrance completely. Slie was on her
fifth or sixth round and had no intention of stopping. It was as if
the rest of the world did not exist for her. The njotlier and I kept
watching her, fascinated. However, it was lunch time, and rather
late at that, so after a while, when all the flowers were once more in
the vase, the mother suggested going to lunch. Her d;iuglitcr paid
no attention whatsoever, and started again with a new round. The
mother, although appreciating the fact that this activity seemed
important to the child, did not want to have her or the rest of the
family miss lunch, so she continued with her summons in a friendly,
but persistent, manner. Finally, the child, without looking up or
interrupting what she was doing, said with some vehemence "No.
no!**, and went on. At this point the flowers were again on the
table, and the mother said. "Well, just put them back in the vase,
but then we shall have lunch.** The child said "Nof* again and
went on until the flowers were all back in place, only to start the
proceedings all over again. Tim time her mother was firm in her
intention and took her daughter up smilingly, promising her nice
food and permission to continue with the flowers after lunch. The
child was simply desperate, wailing and crying big tears, even when
she was sitting in front of her food. It took quite a lot of cuddling
and comforting before she calmed down. Happily, she was hungry,
so that once she had detached her attention from her previous
activity and her fit had passed, the alternative of eating was also
attractive and she could again smile at the world.

'Iliis example is typical of the sort of activity that, to superficial
observers, seems quite superfluous, especially if they judge it by
adult staiidard.s. What is the use of putting flowers in and out of a
vase endlessly? Still, for a child, it can be a very serious matter. The
purpose of the activity, however, miist be sought within the child,
and not in the action itself or its objective aim.

The other function of the Montessori material, to help children

KDUC.VMON KOR HUMAN DEVKLOPMKNT

acquire new perspectives, is illustrated by the following experience I
had with a girl four years old. We were sitting on a large couch with
a cretonne covering that she had crawled and jumped on a great
deal throughout her short life, as it was just under a window looking
out on the street. We were chatting a bit in a gay mood. All of a
sudden she lost interest iu nie, and looking quite seriously at the
cushion on which we were sitting, said nothing for a while. I was
wondering what might have caught her attention when she pointed
with her small finger at a spot of the decoration in the flowery
cretonne and said. *'l*liis is dark green." A little while later,
pointing to another spot, she added. "And this is lighter green."
She then found a still lighter spot and said. ''This is the lightest."
When the green shades were exhausted, she started examining
another color, then another, and so on. I then joined her, following
her statements with questions about other shades, and we con-
tinued until I had to go. Now. the interesting part of this story is
that what the little girl lean jd with tlie Montessori material was
not the colors themselves, nor their names, which she already knew.
It was the coneejjt of shades, which enabled her to rediscover this
piece of furniture she had been so accustomed to all her life. She
was looking at her own world with other eyes, as it were, and with a
more differentiated perception.

These effects can only be expected when the material offered to
a child corresponds to the kind of activities in which it has a special
interest at that stage, and when its intelligence is sufficiently
developed for it to grasp the idea involved. If material is given to a
child too soon, it seenjs too difficult; if too late, it is boring. If, how-
ever, the time is right, it will be experienced as something the child
can conquer. Montessori material offers children symbols and a
means of interpreting their world in a more coherent and difr..,
ferentiated way. It therefore stinnilates their wish to learn by
making learning neither frustrating nor burdensome, but plea-
surable.

Whoever has .seen a Montessori child at the moment in its life
when it discovers that it can read will never forget its happiness, its
beaming face, its pride that a new world has been opened to it. I
have had this privilege with my own children, and it has convinced
me that something very fundamental and constructive happens to

The MontessoTi Materials

cliildreii in Montessori scliools. No matter uiiat tlieorics arc
involved, I slioiikl not wisli to liavc-deprivcd any of uiy children of
this iniiqnc experience. It has also bronglit something new to our
relationship. '^Hie children now not only have the joy of reading and
making sense out of formerly mysterious symbols, but they also
experience the joy of sharing something with adults, something
which until that moment belonged exclusively to the latter's world.
Now the children have entered this world as well. They have
something new in conjmon with the parents with whom they
identify. The bond between them has been strengthened and made
more realistic, and the cliiklrtn's still weak egos have been
strengthened too. AH this has come about in a miraculous way
without the children knowing that it would happen. It is this
element of discovery that makes the Montessori approach to
reading a unique and gratifying experience.

The Montessori materials are generally used individually in the
chi.ssroom. 11 1 ere fore, it is important to consider whether a method
that emphasizes their use can do justice to the social needs of
children.

Historically, the Montessori method has been called an indi-
vidual approach, to differentiate it from the classical approach, the
only method in use in schools in the early part of the century. The
fact is, however, that social education has always had an important
place in Montessori schools. A number of factors contribute to this
education: the role of the teacher, the free method of work, the
prepared environment— which encourages respect for others and for
"materials- nicl the inclusion of children of varying ages in one
group.

Mo.'/i. ssori described the adult's function in the classroom as
one of guiding in contrast to teaching. In fact, she discarded the
term teacher altogether, preferring that of directress. Without
guidance, no single comnnniity can eonie into being. Somebody
nmst see to the maintenance of the patterns of behavior that are
deemed necessary for ordered coexistence within a given group.
Although the school eonnnunity bears some resemblance to the
family, it also differs from it, and therefore demands further social
growth. Teachers are the representatives of this wider community.
They must help the children by gradually familiarizing them with

KDl'C.VnON KOK UDMAN DKVKl.OI'MKN T

its rules, Kurthcrniorc. this must be douc iu n uiauucr tluit uuikcs
their iuucr acccpt;uicc by the cliildrcu possil)lc.

Tcnchcrs must uphold the rules of the school counuuiiity for
the beuefit of the group ns well a.s th;it of iudividual children.
Accordingly the only punishment in Montessori education is
isolation from the group for a temporary period. If a child. behaves
in a way that disturbs others, the teacher explains to him that
others cannot continue their activities. She suggests that they go
and look for something he would like to do. If he continues to be
disruptive, he is set apart with his table, chair, and material. Me can
still see the group, but he is isolated from it. However, be is free to
rejoin the others when he thinks that he is once more able to
participate. It is the social .situation that determine:! when such
measures arc necessary, and it is the child's positive desire to belong
that motivates him to correct his behavior.

'Hie balance between freedom for the individual and the needs
of the group is another :ipecial feature of social education in the
Montessori method. One can only speak of a true connnunity when
each member of the group feels sufficiently free to be himself or
herself, while sinmltaneously restricting bis or her own freedom for
the sake of adjustment to the group. It is in seeking an optimal
solution to this tension between personal independence and
dependence on the grouj) that the social being is formed Too
much individual freedom leads to chaos. Too nuich uniformity,
iiiiposed by adults, leads to impersonal conformity or to rebellion.
The prepared environment encourages social development by
making it necessary for the children to consider both objects and
others. Because the environment is adapted to their inner needs, it
is attractive and stimulating to them, ft invites tliem to engage in
all kinds of activity. There are certain restrictions on this activity,
however. First of all. the materials impose certain conditions.
Controls of error are built into them. Whenever these conditions
are not satisfied the objects themselves coirfront the children with
their properties. The children are thus presented with problems for
which they must seek better solutions if they wish to fulfill the tasks
they have chosen to perform. This factual relation to the objects
promotes inner adjustment to their enviroinnent.

Similarly, an outward adjustment is also required, for evervthing

Vhc Montessori \1dteriuls

in tlic prepared eiiviroiiinciit lias its own special location. After
material has been used, it innst be returned to its original place nnd
condition so that other children can work with it or, not finding it»
can know that it is already in use. 'I'his outward adjustment is
achieved through following the instructions of the teacher, through
the children's awareness of the needs of others, and through the
order of the environment itself, which arouses the childrcirs desire
to collaborate in maintaining it. These forms of adjustment are
important aspects of the process of adaptation that dcterinines the
social development of the individual.

Respect for others is further developed through the childrcirs
relationship with the teacher in the prepared environment. When a
child first comes to school at the age of two and a half or three, it
has little direct contact with other chiklie]i. 'Jliis is because
eniolionally the young child turns much more to the adults in its
surroundings. It develops a personal tie first with its mother, then
with its father, and then with other trusted adults in its first
milieu. A tie with its teacher becomes a further extension of this
sequence. Teachers occupy just as imjjortant a place in a class as a
child's mother does at home, and children turn naturally to them
for help. The relationship that develops is less personal than the
mother-child relationship, but a j)ositi\'e tie between teacher and
child is the only satisfactory basis for education, l^'or this reason
Montessori called education a teclniic|ue of love.

Teachers must actively strive to establish a positive relationship
so that children will approach them with confidence and accept
their authority as a matter of course. In order to do this, they
should make themselves as attractive as they can. not only in
appearance but as a source of new, happy experiences. They must
respect the children's personalities, nnderstnnd their developmental
needs, and appreciate their achievements. In this way. they avoid
standing opposite the children as a representative of arbitrary
authority and take their place beside tliein as wiser persons who
understand them and who are willing to help tlieiu m their
endeavors to grow toward adulthood. The clrldren in turn respond
with affection and a willingness to accept the teachers* guidance.

Once this type of relationship has been established, they can
gradpally help the children to become members of the class

KlirCAI ION lOK UliMAN I)j;\'KI.<)lVMHM

coiinnuiiity. soiuctliint; tlut is only possible when tlicy respect the
iniferests of the group and help to inainlain the existing social order.
They learn to use the material with care so that it remains in good
condition for the use of others, to assist iu keeping the jnutuallv
shared environment attractive and orderly, to behave in such a way
that others can work undisturbed, to de\elop good manners that
make them at ease in various social situations, and to postpone the
satisfaction of their owu wishes when they conflict with the
demands of reality and the needs of others. All this is done in as
natural a wa\ as possible w henever the occasion arises.

Moutessori was one <5f the first to rcali/.e how iujportant
collective work is for mental development, riierefore. she strove to
create optimal conditions for its reali/ation in her schools. Tiie
exercises of practical life for the young children promote social
contact both because of the nature of the task and because of the
way in wliich they arc {)rgani/ed in the classroom. It is a connnon
sight to see little groups of two or more children who have
voluntarily begun to do these exercises together. Collective work
continues to be eniph;isi/ed in Montcssori education all through
preprimar\ and secondary education. At the beginning of a working
period, a short lesson is given on a general subject that may interest
the whole grouj). When this proves a success, it often results in a
nave of activ ity among the children. Sometimes this results in their
working together directly. At other times the\ m;?y work indi-
vidually, on their own level and according to their own insight and
abilities. I lowe\ er. they are at the same time taking part iu a group
event, for their separate contributions are on a counnon subject
and can later be seen b\ everyone as a collective acbieveuient.
I'here are. of course, class discussions when, for example, on a
Monday mornmg the teacher gives the children the opportunity to
tell about their weekend experiences. In this way they learn to
speak before a group, to give each other a chance to sjDcak. und to
make relevant conl-^ibutions to a line of thought. M the same time
they hear about one another's daily life, Kspecially after a vacation,
this gives rise to compositions and drawings based on tlieir
experiences. In addition, the children often react actively to things
the teacher reaciN to tlieui. what the teacher says to them a])OUt a
subject that everyone in the adult world is discussing, in the

'I'hv XUmtesaah Materials

preparation of a science display, and so o:k riierc arc also
individual activities in tlic service of the group, such as the care of
the plants and animals in the classroom, the cleaning of tlie shelves
and materials, and the distribution of food for snacks. There are
group activities sucli as making decorations for the classroom for
festive days and celebrations, thi. silence lesson, exercises on the
line, dancing, and singing. Plays and dialogues are created, and
there are indoor and outdoor games of all sorts. In short, a good
Montessori classroom will be the scene of a variety of collective
activities.

It remains now to consider wliether the individual emphasis of
tlie Montessori materials is suitable for young cliildren, for it is
indeed true that children who are working with the materials are
quietly doing so on tlieir own. In psychological literature this
solitary type of occupation is generally labeled egocentric. In my
opinion, this term is only correct if the beliavior of the child is
judged by adult standards. This, of course, is what the psychologists
in question actually do. »f, however, one takes account of the
child's own nature, it is immediately clear that this term cannot be
used to describe its activity. A small child is capable of becoming
vvliolly absorbed and fascinated by what it is doing. But it is
occupied witfi the materials on winch it is concentrating, and not
with itself-

Of course, clnldr''n in a Moniessori class do nmch niore than
work v\ith the materuil. They are well aware of those around them,
aud one often sees the small ones watching the work of ^^lers,
particularly the older ones, intensely. In doing this they absorb
much more than it seenw, and are already preparing themselves for
nujre active social participation in the conmnmity of the class. The
contribution of the \hnntessori classroom to the development of a
social life sometimes goes unnoticed because of the emphasis on
the inner growth of tlie child. Often one tliinks of social develop-
ment in terms of mutual contact. 1*his is to underestimate the
process involved. A long period of indirect prejjaration is indispens-
able if a child is to develop the capacity of relating to others. As in
all areas of Imman development, nothing is achieved innnediately
and rectilinearly.

Childreii quietly prci:ticiiig on their own with Montessori

KDUCATION FOK MUNIAN DKN'i: LOPMKNT

materials arc unconscionsly preparing tlieiiisclves for participation
in tlic connnnriity in wliidi tlicy will later have to find their places
as independent adults, '['he Montessori method is .specifically
designed to aid them in this important task. If there are Montessori
teachers who have not grasped this goal of education, to which the
method owes its highly dynamic character, it is due to their own
limitations, and not to the method itself. Any teacher or other
adult who fails to appreciate the importance of this inner develop-
ment devalues man to the level of a gregarious animal and denies
the child the help it needs to become tridy what it is intended to
be: a social being.

\ would like now to discuss a third area related to the
.\h)ntL\ssori materials, that of play, because it has always been-and
still is-snrronuded by misunderstanding and criticism, fn the
course of time, however, the direction of critical comment has
shifted. Where formerly it was held that children in Montessori
schools could do what they liked, and thus played all day long,
today the reverse is contended, ft is said that tlie children may only
do what Maria Montessori wanted them to do, so that their need
for free piay is not satisfied.

fn order to see Montessori's view of play in proper perspecrive,
it is necessary to recognize the historical context in which she began
her work. f''irst of all. schools for children under the age of five or six
were the exceprion rather than the rule. In cases where se])afal:e
facilities could be provided for very young child ren, thev were
nursery facilities where toys were played with under the watchful
eye of a governess and where they were more or less left to their
own devices.

Since young children were not deemed capable of anything but
play, they were given only those objects which, in the opinion of
adults, seemed most suitable for tins typical and rather senseless
form of behavior. The toys that could be bought were generallv
pretty and ingenious, but they were not sufficiently adapted to the
children's own nature. Their design was mainly determined by what
attracted adults. They were therefore based on a projection of
adult likes onto children, and not on what children themselves
needed to play with. 'I'lie practice of giving toys to children implied

llic Montessori Materials

a sense of superiority on tlic piirt of ikIiiUs. wlio did not take tlic
cliildrcn's play -.crioush', hut uicrcly wanted to please tlieni. It
reminds one c- die helunior of tlie white traders who offered hand
mirrors and colored glass heads to the chiefs of priuiitivc tribes to
cstaljlish good trade relations. Children's play was regarded by
adults more as a childish business than as fundamental human
behavior at an eaily stage of development. Only when a child did
something that fit\:cd adult expectations, that is, when it was being
least a child, could it exjjcct appreciation.

Montessori, however, wanted to study children in their own
world. 'I'herefore, in seeking the optinunn conditions for her
scientific experiment, she let herself be guided by the spontaneous
activity, reactions, and expressions of children. She started by
offering them all the usual toys that were supposed to please tlieni;
but she also introduced new ones, some of which were the same as
the materials found in MonteS:.ori schools today, h'rom the
children's point of view, they simply coutiinicd playing, but with
more intriguing playthings. For the observer, however, revelations
of lasting importance resulted. The exteriorizing of the contents of
the chikKs own experience by creating shaiJcs out of forndess
material, the elaboration of impressions from daily life by acting
them out alone or with other children, the expression of dominat-
ing emotions througli fantasies of all, kinds, and inexhaustible
physical activity were the accepted forms of tvpical childlike
beh avior throughout the ages, although thev were never completely
understood, riie new aspects of child behavior that came to light
through Montcssori's work clearly demonstrated for the first time
that children have an inner need to learn to know themselves and
their woikl: to develop their intelligence and other mental func-
tions through purposeful activity, to develop control of their
movements through the use of their bodies in specific structured
situation.s, to organ i/.e the contents of their experience according to
the order they encounter in the world, and, finally, through an
accjuaintanee with the properties of things, to grow familiar with
their environment and with their own capacities in order, even-
tually, to become independent.

All this happens in a manner luitural to children and of their
own volition, and therefore should he termed play. Vet, when

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

cliildrcii arc adequately aided in tliis respect, one is struck l)y the
new qualities they develop: the niaxinunn effort very young
children put forth, the repetition of exercises time and again-not
for the sake of the end result-but for the sake of the activity itself,
tlie sense of order, the intensive concentration once a task has
aroused a clnld's interest, the joy in work, the growirr; self-
confidence and social ease, and all the other manifestations that
inspired Montessori to develop her educational metliod.

Two main attitudes can be distinguished in the spontaneous
behavior of children. The first is a desire for self-expression. The
direction of events is, as it were, from tlie inside to the outside.
Objects serve as a means to express tlie eontents of a clnkKs own
experience, its capacities, and the products of its fantasy. 1'hat
wbieli lives in the child itself is exteriorized by its use of objects and
tlie meaning it gives them in free play.

The less structured objects are and the more they function
merely as raw materials, the njore appropriate thev are for this
purpose. Clay, sand, water, beads, coloring materials, blank paper,
art materials of many knids, ean serve very well in this connection.
A boy running with a stick between his legs and acting out the
fantasy that he is a mighty cowboy on horseback chasing a group of
Indians singlehandedly, would not benefit from being given a real
lioise, or a toy horse, in exchange for his stick. The stick does not
even function as a syudjol of a horse. It is actually no more than a
sign: a sign that indicates the transition between reality and fantasy
and also maintains the connection between the two. It is similar to
the signposts in medieval theater that indicated the scenario, which
the stage setting itself left to the imagination of the ,spectators.

When children, cither :done or with others, are bu.sy with such
fantasy play, adults can offer them little help. The usefulness of
objects is also limited, for they nnist fit, or be made by the children
to fit, into the fantasy woHd. The children alone know how that
woHd has to be organized and what significance to assign to the
objects, /riie objects should lend a quality of reality to the'
children's fantasy without disturbing its free course by having too
specific properties or by being too differentiated. In all fantasies,
especially those with an emotional content, a child is confronted
with its personal experience. They enable it to achieve a conscious

The Montessori Materials

eliiborution of tliis experience. On tlic otlier liuncl, the child gets
none tlie wiser al)out tlie world's objective qualities, the properties
of things iiiul their interrelations, or the organization of its
environment from a fantasy. Children themselves give for >i to their
fantasies, and reahty nmst comply with the dictates of ima 'ination.

When reality does not snpport a child's fantasy, < r when
occurrences in the innnediate enviromnent or events connected
with the child's own body claim its attention, the child's attitude
toward the ontor world changes. If, for instance, a screann'ng fire
engine races past, the boy with the stick hor.se forgets for the
moment to be a cowboy and turns with curiosity to that real
occurrence. It is characteristic of such situations that children do
not create their own world but are, as it were, drawn out of it by the
call of reality and venture forth to meet the things that exist in the
world in their own shape. Compliance must now come from the
children's side if they want to get better acquainted with these real
events and real things, and test them on their own merits. Things
have their own significance and organization, their own characteris-
tics, values, and possible uses. The world exhibits a definite
structure in which various principles of order, laws, and mutual
relations can be discerned. Objects in the world therefore make
demands on the children's power of combination, on their insight,
and on their ability to coordinate their movements. Unless these
conditions are met, they cannot make adequate use of real work!
things that they encounter.

The form of inner construction taking place when children are
engaged in fantasy play, or whether any kind of self-construction at
all is occurring, is not known. However, as a spontaneous form of
activity in children, fantasy play deserves serious study. Montessori
did find that, given a choice, children chose the activities that
eventually came to comp.ose the Montessori environment. She
herself made no value judo^ment about this choice. She merely
observed it, and accepted the children's behavior. The fact that
Montessori children generally chose activities that informed them
about the world outside themselves, may be in part the result of
two aspects of their lives. First, the practical life activities, based as
they are on actions the children see adults performing in their
environment, may partially meet their need for dramatic play

KDUCATIONi FOR HUMAN DKVKl.OPMKNT

(which sccMiis to be based on copying what they see about them).*
Second, children in onr culture tend to have more opportunities for
self-expressive play t!iau for activities that develop their knowledge
of the outer world. Therefore, given a choice, they tend to choose
the latter.

In this chapter, 1 have discussed the role of the Montessori
materials in some detail: their primary role as an indirect prepara-
tion for ego functions and the differentiation of the child's
intelligence; the position they hold in its developing social life; and
their relationship to its need.s both for self-expression, as in fantasy
play, and for self-realization based on contact with outer reality.
The role of the materials has been misunderstood by both admirers
and critics, but it need not be. If one understands Montessori's
basic approach to education as an aid to life, the role of the
materials falls logically into place. They are, quite simply. :»k1s to
the child in its self-construction.

NOTE

I . Montess()ri*s appreciation of clr;niui in general is often forgotten. For
very young children, she suggested such activities as extemporaneous acting
inspired by a beginning sentence such :is "Maria went to the window and
cried,...** The older children in Montessori schools write imd produce
original plays. . In some classrooms tlie afternoons arc devoted almost
exclusively to various kinds of artistic expression, including plays. The
latter are often f)ased on history or hterature. For example, an original play
may he put on depicting a historical period or event, with autlientic
costumes, pi ops, and scenery. One school I \ isitcd (the Montessori School
of Northern Virginia, 6820 Pacific I^nc, Annandale, Virginia 22003) had
been to a production of Shakespeare a few weeks earlier, and one of the
cliildren had asked to sec the slides the teacher had taken during the
performance. While tlie slides were being shown, several children spon-
taneously spoke the lines from the scenes being depicted. The play was
Midsummer Nights DTeam, and tlie entertainment superb as one nine-,
year-old boy in particular raised his voice to lake the leading female role,
acting the part to perfection.

3/ MONTESSORI
/ EDUCATION AND
MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

Since the Moiitcssori method grew out of ii scientific investigation,
it seems appropriate to examine wliether this method meets tlic
demands tliat modern science, and psychology in particnlar, make
on ed neat ion. To d(j this, it is necessary to reconnt Montessori*s
view of man and tlie principles on which the rest of her work is
ha.sed so that they can he compared with the findings of modern
psychology.

Of conrse, the term "modern ])sych()log\'* implies a nnity of
outlook that docs not in fact exist. A certain amonnt of disimity,
theoretical controversy, and mutual negativ e criticism has naturally
resulted from the great expansion and progress that this young
scioiee lias experienced within a short time. I^'urtherniore, it is still
far from reaching its final goal. Perhaps one reason for this is the
fact that it*^ object of study— liuuKni behavior— is so very complex.
It is certainly more difficult for us to penetrate than something
with which we are less directh' involved. In spite of this, and
notwithstanding the contradictory opinions held by individual
psychologists, there is sufficient essential agrcen»ent on certain
points for a general view of man to be outlined. Some of its
fundamental characteristics are as follows:

• Man is, abcnc nil, a social being, That is, he is dependent on his
social environment not only for his physical survival but for his

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVFLOPMENT

psycllic iiiul sjjiritual development. Of all living creatures, lie
alone possesses language. Language is not the product and
possession of an individual, hut of society.

• Cultural heritages, which are inconceivahle without society, give
content and form to lunnan existence; they indicate paths by
which man can fulfill his particular destiny. Since this destiny is
interpreted differently from culture to culture, human beings
need each other to realize, collectively, the possibilities of
hanianity. The great human values, such as faith, justice, beauty,
and truth, are created and supported by the community. Within
it they have general validity as aims indissolubly related to human
talent. They have a suprapersonal, supraindividual nature, and
cannot, therefore, be understood or explained by looking at the
individual.

• The individual is only potentially lunnan. He is, as it were, a
promise that can only be fulfilled by society. He is different,
therefore, from an animal, wliich reaches the limits of its
develoj)ment soon after birth and may then be considered
complete.

• The continuity in human history is a cultural continuity, whereas
the continuity in the animal world is in principle biological. The
fundamental psychosomatic unity is another principle that comes
strongly to the fore in contemporary psychology,

• Nhni finds in his organism the source of his own activity. 7*liis he
directs toward his environment, either strivingly or resistently,
through his behavior.

Behavior is the term used to describe the meaningful activity by
which man enters into a relationship with his environment. Since
he has alternatives in this regard, lunnan behavior is the physical
manifestation of a choice.

Man's behavior is only partially determined by the laws of nature.
Insofar as he has alternatives, he must make choices. He possesses
the widest range of possible choices of all living beings because he
is capable of creating alternatives that do not, as such, exist in
nature. On the other hand, an alternative that was originally
present may be lost, and then a pure automatism conies into
funetioiK Therefore all addiction and rigidity is, in a sense, a
deficiency when measured by the yardstick of human possibilities.

Montessori Education and Modem Psychology

• fieluivior is always in reference to something and has meaning,
llie setting of and striving after aims is a fiuidaniental aspect of
hnnian existence. Even before a child can speak, or for that
matter before anyone can explain to it what an aim is, it already
has aims. Bccanse man experiences liini.self a.s the sonrce of
activity, lie is also aware of intentionality. He has this awareness
at an early age.

• Modern psychology begins with the conviction that lunnan
behavior is not purely accidental, but is determined by something.
In other words, it occurs in a context of determinants.

• H\c totality of relationships from which man determines his
behavior is called a situation. Man constantly finds himself in
situations. As his development progresses, these situations become
richer, and consequently his behavior becomes more differenti-
ated. However, tin's differentiation varies from person to person
according to the individuaKs interests, abilities, and circum-
stances.

How does this brief outline of man as lie is presented to us in
psychological literature today compare with the view of man Maria
Montessori presents to us? Montessori held the following beliefs:

• Man appeared on the evolutionary scene as a new being. In spite
of his biological resemblance to the higher animals, he is
fundamentally different from theiii. T'his difference is not one of
overall superiority. Man as an individual is weaker than many
animals, and certainly weaker tluni those animal species presumed
to have inhabited the earth when he first made his appearance. It
is said that his weapon is intelligence. However, the intelligence
of the individual means little when he lives in isolation.

• In animals, the ability to adapt is limited. Their consciousness is
confined to their needs and the striving to satisfy theiii. They live
in bondage to hereditary patterns of behavior from which they
can deviate only slightly and then only in special circumstances.
.\hm is different. lie is far more flexible. Me too posse.sses certain
instincts, but they are less structured than those of animals and
they do not determine the patterns of behavior that give form
and content to his existence. He must construct these patterns
himself, and he can only do this in assocatioii with his fellow men.

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVKLOPMKNT

Man ciiiinot 1)C' uiiclcrstoocl as an individnal. It is only in a
conununity tliat he l)cconic.s Innnan and tliat liis potcMitialitics
can lie rca-ii/xxl.

Tlie animal biosphere has an organization that appears to be
more or less static. Man has called into existence a psychospherc
that is dynamic and changeable. Since his behavior is not
determined hereditarily, he seeks self realizatioii. In tlie conrse of
this search, lie has learned to change his natnral environment and
has made discoveries that have gradually brought about the
present state of civilization. What is generally referred to as our
social cnvironnient-a milieu that in the course of history
acquired its present form-is no longer natural, but is a su-
pranatural creation.

Work is inherent in human existence. Most people, therefore,
work, and many discover new things; but individnal discoveries
oidv become valuable when they are accepted and applied by a
larger group.

However convinced someone may be tliat he is working only for
himself, he is in fact working for the comnuniity; and only the
results of this coninumal activity, which we call civilization, show
continuity and progress.

'Hie link that makes this continuity possible is the child, with its
specific potentialities.

People do not unite by holding onto one another. 1'heir hands
nmst be free for the activity by which the individual tries to
realize his own destiny. He does this independently, in accordance
with his personal capacities and po.ssibilities.
The bond between human beings is their common intelligence,
and language is the vehicle that makes the abstract intelligence of
a connnunity possible. It is only as a member of a group that the
individual can accomplish his task as a human being. Yet man's
existence within the group nuist also be safeguarded by agreement
on the general rules of conduct, since patterns of behavior are not
determined by natural laws.
• llie higher values generally accepted by a connnunity constitute
the spiritual pole according to which the individual directs his
striving toward self-realization and, in doing so, constantly
sacrifices some of his self-interest. Their content and interpreta-

Montessori Education and Modern Psychology

tioii vary from culture to culture and also among the various
groups within a greater coninuniity. But the need for religion and
for norms is an essential characteristic of human nature.
• The conglomerate of spiritual and material values which we term
civilization and which determines the cultural climate of a
conuuunity is no static entity. It is constantly being added to and
revised. The dominating patterns in it change and evolve in the
course of time, affecting nian\s behavior.

^riie parallels between the two views of man presented here—
that of Montessori and modern psychology— are certainly striking.
Mer persona] contribution is her identification of children as the
hnk tliat guarantees the continuity of human evolution, which is a
cultural evolution. Because of their close emotional bond with
t)iose into whose care they are given, children turn, with their
special sensibilities and potentialities, to adults. From them, they
unconsciously absorb the fundamental patterns on which they base
their personal behavior during their childhood. Their minds absorb
and digest impressions of the social environment as they travel the
road toward their own destiny in society.

A convincing example of the child's capabilities in this area is
provided by Marie- Yvonne Vellard, a child of the Guayaki Indians,
a South American tribe living a hidden, nomadic existence on the
Stone Age level. In 1932 she was abandoned in the forest by two
women of the tribe when they were surprised by members of an
expedition led by Dr. Jean Albert Vellard, director of the French
Institute of Indian Studies at Lima. She was adopted, and
subsequently raised, by Dr.. Vellard and has become an educated
woman who speaks several languages and who, apart from her
appearance, does not differ from the Latin American friends with
whom she shared her upbringing. During a UNESCO conference in
Paris on racial problems, her ease was quoted as evidence that all
nlen are equal at birth J It took our ancestors two hundred
centuries to go from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Hiis girl did
it in one leap. An adult member of her tribe, even the most
intelHgent, would not have been able to adapt to the modern world
in this way. Some indication of what might have been achieved can
be found in a touching human document relating the brief

EOUCVnON FOR HUMAN DKVKLOPNfKNT

encounter witli twcntietli-ceiitiiry civilization of Islii, tlie bst
snrvivor of :i California Indian tribe. lie emerged from tlie Stone
Age into the modern world in 1911, and although intelligent and
sensitive, his cultural being remained unehanged.- Only children
possess the spiritual ability (the absorbent mind) necessary for the
formation of the future num.

So far we have examined only Montessori's global view of man,
and the principles on which'she based her method. .Although this
view is in accordance with modern psychology, it does not follow
that its practical applications are. A brief sunnnary of Montessori*s
reasoning and tiiat of psychology will indicate whether, in fact, they
are. An analysis of the N'arious trends and schools in psychology
shows that there is agreement on several fundamental points, wliieh
consequently may be considered representative of modern
psychology:

• A psychic event only acquires meaning when it is related to a
higher totality, in the final analysis, to the perscmality as a wIkjIc.

• The relevant organizing principle is not the law, but the type.
The total individual shoidd be studied and his psychological
structure comjxired with the psychological structures of other
individuals so that its type can he determined.

•The organic totality of personality is directed toward the
realization of certain aims and values. It is important to
understand the internal striving of psychic life toward aims and to
consider psychic activity from the viewpoint of finality,

• Phenomena and functions ha\*e incaning in the life of the
inchvidual, who is not a passive mechanism, but an active, stri\'ing
being.

• The meaning of a phenomenon caniujt be understood from
studying the unrelated process alone, but only from examining
the meaningful whole of which it forms a part,

• Man is a spiritual being and strives for certain cultural values.

• All psychological processes are related to the subject, which is
active. The ego is the center that gives direction to these
psychological processes.

• Not only the content of experience but the action function of the
ego comes to the fore.

Montessori Education and Modem Psychology 41

• Man's emotional and volitioiial life is important, as is his social
aspect.

• ^rhe psychosomatic unity of man is fundamental.

• Behavior is the physical manifestation of a choice. It springs from
an alternative.

Let us now consider a few principles of Montessori education:

• Education must help the child develop its personality in accor-
dance with its nature and possibilities, and at its own rate, so that
later it can fulfill its task as an independent, balanced human
being in the adult community. The aim, therefore, is always the
formation of the total personality, not of independent functions
or processes.

• Optimal relationsliips between children and adults and an opti-
mal environment stimulate and give positive support to this
spontaneous inner development. When it occurs, a change takes
place in the child called normalization.

• Children want to become adults and, prompted by their inner
needs, strive to achieve this goal independently. Education must
assist them in this task of inner development. In order to offer
them adequate help, it is necessary to understand their psychic
activity from the point of view of this final aim.

• Many activities of small children appear meaningless. However,
the concentration with which they devote themselves to these
activities makes it evident that they are important to them.
When children are engaged in such activities, the Montessori
teacher must withdraw and allow them to proceed without
interruption. Much of the Montessori developmental material
has been been constructed to further this kind of indirect
preparation for functions that will only lb ter become manifest.

• Only when this happens can the meaning of a single phenomenon
be grasped or interpreted in its correct context. 71ierefore, in
Montessori education the self-directed activity of the child is
respected. Any attempts to penetrate into the secret of childhood
are made through its spontaneous manifestations. Montessori
teachers are trained to observe the child and to report on their
observations. In this way. the behavior of the child can be studied

EDUCATION FOR HirMAN DEVEl.OPMKVT

ill tiic iiieaiiiiigfiil context of the whole personality acting in the
pedagogical situation.

• Tlic school must be a cultural environment, so that children have
the opportunity to become faniiliiir with the basic aspects of their
own culture. During the first years of life the child's absorbent
mind enables it to incorporate the fundamental patterns of
culture it has come in contact with through association with
adults. It then proceeds to give tlieni form and content in a
personal way. Schools nuist offer children this possibility for a
cultural environment and enlarge their cultural horizon in such a
way that not only intellectual, but also spiritual development
occurs. I'lie spirit a.ii core of man is alread\ present in children. It
directs their psychic development from within In means of special
sensitivities and needs that, if given the opportunity, spur the
conscious ego of the child to specific activities.

• The Mo)itessori material is constructed to appeal to these inner
needs. In addition, it offers children the opportunity to \v(5rk
indepeudenth' and to have their own experiences with it. Since
handling it demands the coordination of different functions, the
entire personality is involved. However, one single propert\' is
accentuated in each subdivision of the material. A child is thus
invited to direct its attention to a special objective quality. The
latter is so chosen that it is attuned to a specific psychic activity
and requires, at the same time, specific actions for the manipula-
tion of the material. 'I'he material itself makes the child aware
when something has not been done correctly. Its intelligence is
then challenged to find a better solution. In this way the ego
functions are differentiated, trained, and integrated without
strain, more or less playfully, while the child is sti undated to
perform meaningful acts.

• This i\s possible because the material takes into account the inner

c'ds n^f the child in the course of its devclopnicnt. It therefore
has am iiiwiting character and an emotional appeal. It arouses the
Autrrcsl off the child and stimulates it to activity as well as to
coiicentrabion. The motto of Montessori education, derived from
the utterujiice of a toddler ("Help me to do it myself"), nnplies an
ackiHJvvledignient of the child as a striving being with its own aims
and needs. 'I he latter are also indicated by what^we call sensitive
periods.

Montessori Education and Modern Psychology

• Social (Icvclopiiicnt. clc;ilt with in Chapter 2. is one of tlic
fundamental characteristics of Montessori education.

• As far as teaching was concerned. Montessori believed that the
emphasis oti the intellectual aspect of learning was largely wrong.
The role of the personality as a psychosomatic unity in the
h;arning process nuist he fully acknowledged. No passive absorp-
tion, hut intelligent action is required. L.eiu iiing is a dvnamic
process in which the whole personality of the child must be
actively engaged. The Montessori material itivites this. 7'he
coordination of niovenients. the self-activity, and ibe freedom of
movenient in the classroom characteristic of Montessori educa-
tion arc also applications of this principle.

• In conclusion, it may be mentioned that a free choice of activity,
which confronts the child with alternatives and which therefore
teaches it to beconie independent, is a Montessori principle par
excellence. The formal, classical approach to education excludes,
by definition, the possibility of taking this fundamental aspect of
man's existence into account, imposing the same task on an entire
group degrades an alternative to a necessity.

It is clear from this brief statement of tlie principles followed in
applying the Montessori method that they arc consistent with the
principles of modern psyehology. Let us now examine the scientific
method employed in .Montessori schools to see how it relates to
other methods employed in modern psychology. Method is the
most important characteristic of all science. The only difference
between an unscientific opinion and a scientific judgment is that
the latter is based on method. Having a method is essentially no
more than working in a systematic way. It is a kind of discipline, or
self-control, that consists of constantly querying whether and how
far that which one asserts is really based on experience or supported
by it. Kxperimentation is no doubt the most ideal method of
investigation in the empirical sciences. Its advantages are not
exceeded by those of any other method. Laboratory experimenta-
tion, however, has practical limitations. 7*hat is \sh\' wa>s are sought
to retain the advantages of the experiniental method in the
.systematic stndy of phenomena which c;nmot be studied in the
laborator\ . One of the niost important ways of doing this is through
field experiments, where the field is a normal environment, for
example, a school. Kven closer to everyday experience is so-called

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

actioii-rescarcli in wliicli a coiiuminity (such as a scliool) cooperates
with experts in tlie rescarcli program. Tlicse experts not only
investigate existing conditions, but seek to improve tliem. Such
researcli tlierefore lias a normative character. Another n^.ethod of
investigation outside of the laboratory is to make the observer or
researcher a member of the group under observation. 1*he use of
this method in psychoanalysis and in Montessori education was
discussed in Chapter 1. Flowever, making and recording observa-
tions, it should be remembered, is a very difficult task for most
people. If teachers are required to do this, it is important to give
considerable attention to such matters iu their training. Otherwise,
the danger of mechanization and rigidity will be great. It is
precisely because a scientific attitude requiring constant observa-
tion is important that the Montessori method makes great de-
mands on teachers wishing to apply it. All the scientific methods
described above are compatible with Montessori education, al-
though there will be differences in the Way they are applied in
practice. .

If we view the relationship between Montessori education and
modern p.sychology as a whole, the following can be observed: Until
World War II, applied psychology was predominantly laboratory
psychology. Montessori education, which is based on an empirical
experiment with children in concrete life situations, could do very
little with it. As I have mentioned, M;iria Montessori herself was so
struck by and involved in what she crdled the discovery of the child
that slie never felt the need to build up a theoretical .system. It was
not theories that were important to her. but the child itself. The
revelations of its spontaneous behavior touched her so profoundly
tliat she devoted the rest of her life to acting on its behalf. Indeed
.she referred to herself as an "ambassadress for the cause of the
child."

Since World War II psychology has developed rapidly, and
there has been a growing interest in the concrete behavior of man
in ordinar>', everyday situations. Because of this, the divergence
between Montessori education and psychology has decreased, and a
possibility of bridging tlie gap between them may well exist. I hope
that the thoughts presented here will be a spur to efforts in this
direction.

Klontessori Education and Modern Psychology

NOTES

1. From a report in tlic cbily pjpcr De Dordtenaar (August 12, 1950),
p. 5. Requests for more details of this case from UNESCO and N'elbrd
have renuiucd unanswered.

2. See Theodora Kroeber. ISHl in Two Worlds (Berkeley and l.os
Angeles: University of California Press, 1962).

4 / THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
' VALUE OF WORK
IN SCHOOL

All ciiclcavor to assess tlic psycliological value of work in scliool
necessitates a siiiiiinary of botli the psychological significance of
Maria Moiiiessori's contribution to human knowledge and work as
a human phenomenon. These two main issues must in turn be
related to the educational situation, ft will then be possible to
evaluate work within the school setting and, at the same time, to
estimate the psychological merits of the Montessori approach and
traditional education as it is practiced tod a v.

The driving force giving impetus aijd direction to Montessori s
thinking was a truly profound vision of man and his position in the
world. This vision was based oi^ her convictioi; that wlien man
appeared in the world a new species came into being. She called for
a new begimiing in the study of child development based on tin's
coinictio!!. ft vvar her anthropological orientation that eventually
resul*;:'d in her **.J!scovery" of the child. 1*liis discovery consisted of
a rcali^arion of the specific function of the child in the formation
of man .i.id is me link between generations in numkind s cultural
evoluJious. The behavior patterns typical of the human species are
iH)t hereditary— only the abilities to form them are. Man reaches
maturity only in his postnatal state, when he is already exposed to
ciivircniiieiital influences. 7*he continuation of the embryonic
process that occurs after birtij is of h psychological order because it
requires the active participation of the individual involved. The

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

child has special powers that facilitate self-coiistriictioii: an absor-
bent mind and sensitive periods. Bnt it needs the help of adnlts.
Education has a fundamental role in the formation of man, and its
foremost aim should be to oflFer adequate aid and stinuilatiou to
the intricate process of inner construction.

Of course, we all realize that whatever we are now, whatever we
can do, is the result of a previous period of development, and a
process of learning influenced by the education we have received.
Montessori, liowever, believed that a lack of education would not
merely restrict our- capabilities as adults bu?- would, if extreme
enough, preclude the possibility of even becoming human beings.
Let us, for example, imagine a healthy normal baby separated from
its mother at birth and brought up with the best of foods in an air-
conditioned, soundproof space with sufficicfit light and all other
material conditions mechaniciilly regulated in an optimal way but
empty of further objects and human contacts. If such a being
remained alive through puberty, which in itself would be extremely
unlikely, it Would not be a human being but merely a creature
resembling a human being. It would not be a question of its simply
having lost fifteen years of tutoring that it would have to make up.
It would actually possess none of the attributes we consider
essentially human and of which we are so proud. If such a luckless
creature were admitted to society at maturity, it would not be able
to recover the ground it had lost. It would remain a misfit, however
long it might be kept alive, in spite of being given whatever it had
been deprived of during its isolation. It would, of course, be too
cruel to prove this by an experiment. Mumamty is often cruel,
however, and there have been instances where children who were
deprived in one way or another lost forever certain faculties
inherent in human beings. A well-known historical example is Dr.
Jean Itard's account of the '^'sauvage de V Aveyron,*' a wolf child
found in the woods shortly after the French Revolution. The
description of Dr. Itard's experiences with this child interested and
inspired iMontessori long before she started her pedagogical work.

Let us now consider work as a human phenomenon. In one of
his relatively rare discussions of work, Freud remarks, *'After primal
man had discovered tnat it lay in his own hands, literally, to
improve his lot on earth by working, it cannot have been a matter

The Psychological Value of Work in School

of indifference to liim whether another man worked with hiiii or
against hiin. The other iiian aeqnirecl the vahie for hiin of a fellow
worker, with whom it was nseful to live togethcr."VI should like to
add "and to achieve peaeefiil coexistence and collaboration he
invented a language to communicate with him." In the quotation
above, which one could easily believe to have come from Mon-
tes-sori's writings. I'Veud defines the essence of work as a human
phenomenon. What he actually tells us is that man has a purpose
in life. This purpo.se is to improve his lot, which necessitates an
intrinsic relation between him and his environment. It also brings-
him to discover that it is only through his own activity, namely by
using his intelligence and its tools, the hands, that he can change
his en\iroumeiit. Work is a fundamental feature of the human
being as a species, and an adaptive, creative, and social function par
excellence. Although its nK*aning. social role, and specific objectives
have changed throughout the centuries and have differed from one
connnunity to another, it. has always maintained its position as one
of the main spheres of human beh.avior.

It is curious that relatively little has been written about work as
a human phenomenon. Kven in modern studies on the subject, the
ability to work, which may well be called a major human
phenomenon, ha,s received little attention. It has cxKlently been
taken for granted. Psychologists have given much attention to the
problem of work, and there is a vast literature on the subject, but
niost of it concerns secondary aspects of the problem. It does not
answer the question of why people work at all, or why they fail to
do so. Learning theory, which pretends to give an answer, does so
only in terms of conditioning. In reality, this is only one aspect of a
very complex phenomenon. It is also the less human one, for it
deals with that which man has in common, on the one hand, with
animals and. on the other, with machines. Its lailure to explain
adequately some of the crucial phenomena in humans has finally
engendered a promising reaction in the direction of a rehumaniza-
tion of psychology.

The contribution of Professor Walter S. Neff of New York
University to an understanding of work and human behavior is of
special interest.- His comprehensive approach coincides in principle
with that of Montes.sori. As a clinical psychologist, he has worked

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVKl.OPMENT

closely for a miinbcr of years with people for whom work is a major
difficnlty. Drawing on this experience, he has nndcrtaken to stndy
work as a lunnan phencnnenon from all relevant angles. He has
focnsed on the ability to work in its own right and also in relation
to the general problems of the human personality, lie sees it,
therefore, in its trne complexity. His definition of work coincides
with the views expressed above in connection with Frend's remarks,
i'he latter, however, are in regard to work by adnlts, not the ability
to work as snch, nor how it develops. NefT endeavors to investigate
this process. Me sees the ability to work as an as|)ect of the
development of the personality, with which it is interrelated,
althongh it is eventually differentiated into a relatively antonomons
sphere of behavior, lie does not see it as limited to particular
aptitudes and skills, but as adaptive and hence transactional. Ife
thereby acknowledges the different stages of developnient.

NefT suggests that the cr)nditions for becoming a worker '*may
be certain necessary kinds of experiences in early and middle
childhood." This is interesting in connection with Montessori's
sensitive periods. (American psychologists refer to "critical pe-
riods.") However. NefT's insight is not sufficient for him to over-
come certain ingrained prejudices, ft works to s(niie extent with
regard to emotional influences, but there it stops.

In summari/ing the components of what he calls the work
|)ersonalit\ , Neff states three couclusicms: I'irst, the general source
of the will to work is the precepts of society. The fact that society
expects an iu(hvidual to play a productive role determines his
behavior, not inner promptings at various stages of development.
Second, the critical periods for the formation of the work per.sou-
ality are middle childhood and adolescence, 'i'hird, the compulsion
to work is initially entirely external to the organism, hut it becomes
internalized to varying degrees and in different forms.

in enunciating these conclusions. Professor Neff tdtally aban-
dons- his original goal, which was to study the meaning of work in
general and to focus on the ability to work in light of the
developmental process. In making the three points above, he has in
mind a special form of work: that of the adult. He has evidently
looked for the earliest period iu childhood when such work occurs,
which is, of course, when the child goes to school for formal

The Psychological Value of Work in School

iiistructior. at approxiiiiately six years of age. Tlius lie sees this as
tlie first of tlie critical periods relevant tr work. However, the
behavior pattern of ehilclren at tlii.s stage results from an integration
of experiences related to critical periods in previous stages, dnring
which their ahility to work was developed to the extent of
pernvitting them to attend school. If the conipnision to work is
initially entirely external to the organism, what is the significance of
Neff's first eritical period? Perhaps bv then children have been
sufficiently manipulated and indoctrinated by adults, that they
conform to the precepts of society without protest! In his
iiitrodiictioii, Neff writes. "One of our major concerns will be to
consider the manner in xyliidi a non-working child becomes a
working adult/* Apparently, this transformation is to be achieved
by molding it from the outside. W'e are back to the age-old
prejudice of adults who think that because a child functions in a
different way it is void of the qualities one encounters in adults. In
actual fact, the child is building these quahties within itself, but in
its own w ay.

The concept of de\elopinent is inconceivable without a goal.
There must be something in a developing being to guide the
process from within. Everything that manifests itself as new in that
long-range process must be the result of a period of nidirect
preparation. If that preparation process is a type of adaptation,
which must not be confused with either adjustment or coiiforiiiisiii.
then there must be soiiietliiiig that drives ^hc child to shape its own
behavior patterns to harmonize u ith its environment. Otherwise it
would be like a circus animal being drilled to perform in a way that
was alien to it. Bebaviorists may believe that this is the case, but I
do not. This kind of view, wliicli is dominant in traditional
education, precludes the development of the kind of flexible work
l)eh a\ior that is needed in the world todav.

Before psychoanalysis, it was believed tiiat because the sexual
function in the adult form had its onset at puberty, infant sexuality
did not exist. Neff has adopted the same attitude in regard to work.
In reality its roots must be looked for in the very first crucial
formative period of the spiritual embryo. Some time ago, I was at a
wedding reception. The bridegroom's sister was helpi!\g to receive
guests, so she let her husband babysit with their oiie-aiuha-half-year-

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DF.VEI.aPMENT

old boy. Tlic fatlicr took up a position witli his l)ack to one of those
stray tallies wlicrc tlic food offered remains nearly untouched. As
his little hoy was at tlic'age when huniaus grab and examine
whatever they can lay their hands on. his father kept him on his
arm so that he could not reach the objects on tiic table. From time
to time, the father gave the boy a cookie, but instead of eating it
himself, the child enjoyed pushing it in his father's mouth- As I do
not much like receptions and am always fascinated by the
spontaneous reactions of yonng children. 1 parked myself behind
the father's back, facing the child and holding a pretzel stick in my
mouth like a cigarette. I wanted to sec whether the child would do
the same thing with me as he had with his father. He looked, with
an intent, inquiring expression, first at my eyes, then at the stick in
my mouth, then again at my eyes. He hesitated as if he were
considering whether I was a friend or foe. Finally, the temptation
became irresistible. \'ery carefully, he stuck out his right index
finger and. with the precision of a scientist working in a laboratory,
he slowly brought his arm forward until the tip of his outstretched
finger contacted the end of the pretzel and gently pushed the stick
inside my month. His eyes watched me carefully to see when the
pretzel completely disappeared. When it was gone, 1 took a new
one and the child began the whole perforniance again, but now
without any hesitancy, fully engrossed in what it was doing. When
there were not too many sticks left. 1 let the same one reappear.
The child eontinued to repeat his pushing action with enormous
concentration until all of a sudden, he grabbed the stick out of my
mouth and ate it with a beannng face. The cycle of activity was
completed. hVom a hygienic ])oint of view, it was most deplorable,
of course, but as a manifestation of a hnmau being in the act of
building within himself the ability to work, it was-to) precious to
stop. ,

What a perfect coordination of intelligence, perception, and
movement, and what an intensity of absorption was demonstrated
in what to Neff would have been a senseless little game, 'rrnc, the
activity Jjad no a])parent purpose; it was performed for its own sake,
and it was thus play according to his definitions of work and play.
Hut it did have an unconscious purpose. It was not directed toward
mastering the outer environment, but toward the construction of

The Psychological Viilue of Work in School 5^

wliiit Montcssori called "tlic organs of tlic i nil id." Tliesc mental
organs are formed by tins kind of ii; tens ct ion l)et\veen the inner and
enter world, tlie motivation for wliieli conies from witliin. 'I liis
nioti\iiti()ii manifests itself tlirough tlie sensitive jjeriods. However,
even after tlieir coiicliisi(Jii. tlic nrge to learn, to form one's own
personality, adajjtcd to hot^* one's individnal potentialities and the
conditions of one's environment (and hence the ability to work),
accoinpanies the growing individual thronglioiit the whole lengthy
period of youth. Sj)ecific sensitive periods end when the\ have
performed their function or when the inaturational iiiiiit.s within
which they can occur have been passed. I)ut the intensive attraction
to the eiivironment, the love for it. remains a basic attitnde of the
growing individual. At least, it does if it is not inhibited or
repressed j)y inner anxieties or b\ restrictive' measures or taboos
iiiiposeci by adults.

lulucatioii should take this into consideration and use it as a
guide ill structuring the pedagogical' situation. W'e have discussed
the fact that the task of educators is to help growing liunian beings
to de\'elop. They can do so by offering children an environment
that stimulates their inner j)otentialities at difiPerent stages of
de\cluiDnieiit. The psvchological value of work in school depends
on wlicther we succeed in doing this when we decide how to
organi/e a school: wliat to include in the curriculnm and which
n»ethod of instruction \kv should follow. The children themselves
should serve as our giiide. Our success is determined b> their
responses. If thvy work with concentration and pleasure, then we
Ikjvc found the link with that iimer force which directs their
development. If their spirit (a forbidden word in psychology!) is not
touched, thev may coinjjly with our demands for work; but the
psychological value of their work will be restricted to a more or less
mechanical learning of techniques, ^fliis process does not iiuolve
the total personality, and consequently has little formative value.

'i o illustrate this point, i sometimes use the case of a male
patient, twenty-cighl years old, who came to me for psycho.Kri:.! tic
treatment. Me coinplaiijcd of anxiety, crying bouts. depressi .MY :v',d
an inability to work. He had not worked since leaving sec'^^.l :ry
school. His first Ijreakdowii took phice at college. It was followed by
similar crises every tiiric he tried a new occupation. At last he gave

KDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVKl.OPMENT

up all attempts at working; and began living a solitary, inactive life
in an attic. He had lost his father, whom he was very fond of, wlien
he was three years old. This death was followed by a sequence of
traumatic events, including a move to a different country and a
change in the family's social status that disrupted his rather
paradisical world drastically. He tried to save himself from this
emotional wreckage by warding off reality, taking refuge in a
fantasy world. Mis attitude toward the outer world was one of
passive conforinism. which actually covered up deep feelings of
rancor and superiority.

At the age of four, he was sent to a Montessori infant school,
where he felt completely at a loss. The freedom especially terrified
him. By allowing him independence and holding him responsible
for his own actions, the school challenged him to leave the security
oi' his self-made prison. His mode of existence was jeopardized, and
he felt paralyzed. He was then moved to a Dalton school where he
was given specific tasks and told more or less how long he was
supposed to work at them. The rest of the time he could work hy
himself, uiiless he w ished to ask something. He managed to avoid
doing that as he was intelligent and did not need assistance. Me did
not mix with thr other pupils, but he appeared happy to be left in
peace. Me |)rovt to he i; brilliant pupil throughout both elemen-
tary and high school, airl his high marks indicated that he would
have an easy time at college. Instead, he collapsed there.

Of course, he had always remained difficult at home, leading a
solitary life in his rcmni. Me considered his sehoolwork a tedious
dut\ which he had to perform in order to keep exigent adults off his
back and be free to withdraw into an imaginary world where he
found solace for his wounded ego in fantasies of grandeur.
However, as long as his work at school was satisfactory, things went
reasonably uell. lie passed for a normal boy. although he was not.
It took seven years of analysis to restore his grip un realitv and
enable him to find a meaning in life again.

The case of this patient was not very unusual. A number of
students sent to uu: by their university health care department for
counseling had very sinular histories. 1 hey had achieved apparent
social adjustment hy complying dutifully with the reqr.irement.s of
the .school's curriculum, without, liowever, taking part in school life

The Psychological Value of Work in School

proper, and tlicy liad dccp-scatcd emotional problcMns that went
unnoticed. Wliat is tlie psycliological valne of work in scliool in
these cases? Clearly, it is as a defense. Normal development has
stagnated at some stage, partly inhibiting the process of adaptation.
This nenrosis, however, has not affected the ability to work,
because of the relative autonomy of this sphere of behavior. The
work demanded by schools is one-sided, focused only on certain
aspects of intellectual functioning. Society puts so much value on
success in this quarter that it permits these individuals, through
conformity, to build up a fake state of normality. However, when
they leave the protected and artificial enviromnent of the school
tliey collapse, like hothouse plants exposed for the first time to the
hardships of a natural climate.

It is interesting to note in this connection that the psychological
importance of education for the formation of num in the different
stages of development, whether at ,sehool or elsewhere, is in reverse
proportion to the value usually accorded it b\ society. This is
reflected clearly in the progressive level of training, M)cial status,
and renunieration of the educators involved: the domestic person-
nel caring for infants at home, the workers in child-care centers, the
teachers in preprimary, elementary, and secondary schools, and
finally, imivcrsity professors at the top of the academic tree. 'Hiauks
to the ever-growing speciali/ation and mechamzatiou of instruc-
tion, the latter really contribiitc very little to the formation of the
student's personality, and their role in this connection is on the
decline.

l,et us now consider how the educational process resulting fiom
the Montessnri approach coincides with pediigogieal psychology, fn
a historical survey of t!ie development of pedagogical psychology.
Professor Max 1 iiliebraiid stresses the necessity of an anthropologi-
cal orientation in both pedagogy and psychology for a fundnnicntal
understanding of the human being. This is aii acknowledgment of
the basic thesis that "man as animal educanditm is a being that
witiiout learning and education cannot become man."-* He points
out that education cannot work without the concept of dispositions
(Montessori's potentialities). It aims at them as its result and effect.
Kducators must find ways to reach the deeper layers of the
personality, permittmg the dispositions to come into play. Professor

KDlICAllON K)K HUMAN DKVKLOPMKNT

Hcinricli Roth, in coiidudint; a discussion on problems of ccln-
aihility, rcuuirks tlut cdi ution nnist ot necessity jppcal to the
child's growing self-insiijht and auto'jducation. Wluit is most
important is the reinforcement of tlie child's increasing ability to
act independently in a responsible way.^

This may suffice to show that the Montessori ajjproach to work
in tlie school corresponds to what is considered basic when
education is oriented toward the foriiiation of man. Traditional
education in a classical setting, on the other hand, concerns itself
too exclusively with the transfer of knowledge, ignoring its respon-
sibihly with regard to the inner de\ elopiiient of personality.

Montessori considered tlie ability to work to be an important
aspect of the inde])ciidencc of the individual throughout life. As
earlv as adolescence she believed that eeonoinie independence
based on one's own initiative was essential to a sense of well-being.
Succeeding by one's own efforts, she felt, and at the same time
being in contact with the realitv of hfe that work represents,
euliaiices the personality. This is true all through adult life and into
old age. It is ntJt the kind of work one devotes oneself to that is of
most importance, but the principle of work itself. "All work is
noble," she wrote. '*The only ignoble thing is to live without
working," Intclleclnal work and nuninal work are conipleineiitary
and "ccjually essential in a ci\ ilix.ed existence."'*

A society constructed without an awareness of man's need for
work would be a hazardous one indetd for niaii's future Ileal tli.
1 low ever, it is not likely that such a society will eve; he hnilt. It is
onlv the work that c; ; he done by machines that man may be
reUevcd <jf. i Ic will stiu have the ahihtv to work, and the inner urge
to lU) so, if it is not nipped in the bud when he is a child.

Nhnitessori gave a new orientation to work in school because
she realized its psychological \ ahie. 1 lopefiilly. a sufficient niiiiiher
of educators will share this insight, and the responsibility that goes
with It, so that there will he real and lasting changes in the
educational approach of the future.

The Psychological Value of Work in School

NOTES

1. Sigmunc! Krciul, CiYilization and Its Disvuntenis, standard cd., vol.
21 (London: llogarHi Press, 19S^). p. 99.

2. Sec Walter S. Ncff, Work and Human llehdvicr (New York:
Atherton Press, 196S).

3. Mux Josef Ilillebraiid, 'iiegriffsbestiuinnuig i GeschichHiciie
KiUwicklung dcr Padagogischen Psychologic," Uandbuch der S^sychologie,
vol. U) (CoHingeiu 1959), p. 46.

4. llciuridi Roth. '*ProblciM der Biklsanikeit nnd Krziehuugsfahigkeit
iii dcr Psychologischcu Korschung,'* i!)id.. p. 90.

5. Maria Nioutcssori, From Childhood to Adolescence (New York:
Schockcn Books, 197^), p. 10^.

5 / MONTESSORI AND
' THE PROCESS
OF EDUCATION

Wc sliall now consider tlic process of education vvitliin the special
settint; of tlie school. It should he clear from previous chapters that
school is only one aspect of the educational process in Montessori's
thiuknjg. 'I'he Montcssori approach is hased on the r^i olntionary
idea that education has an indispensable role in the foiniation of
man. W ithout sonic kind of interaction with a human l^eing
wiierehy a niiuiMunn of cultural dat:i is transmitted, a newborn
child cannot complete the basic development necessary to become
one of its species. This conception determines the ahu and the
general principles of Moutessori education.

This aim is to offer adequate aid to tlie development of the
growing human being. Education starts at birth, and therefore
coneeuis parents as well as all other adults who take ear^ of a cb\ld
in tlie different milieus in which it grows, ft should be directed
toward the future and we shoukl take into account the whoU
continaum cr! growth in establishing its objtvtive. Also, to be
scientific, rdi'cation must he based on a theory of development.

I'hr, l.iKt point, which niay seem self-evident, is in fact little
undci. stood by educators even today, and is far from being applied
in any comprehensive way. The only American-made plan to do
till** that I have come across is one by Professor Helena Miller of
Dnquesue University.^ I fmd it promising because it is not an
outcome uf simple theorizing. Rather, it has grown ont of twenty-

K.DUCAMON FOK II(:.\!,\N nKVKl.OPMKS r

seven years of experience teaeliiiig "students of every age level,
froni all strata of society, in every ty|)e of school."

'F'he technicjue used to educate children nnisl l^e one of love, I
do no' use the word in the se;niniental sense, of course, hut to
designate that nu)st powerful of all emotions !;y which huuj,ni
beings are attracted to and rehiie to persoiis and ohjecTs that gratify
their niost fundament:?! neeJs. Die piychoai.:?Ivtic Ji)proac5< to
education is haMxl on a shvAln piincip!* aisd reaches sjmiJar
« ()jKh;.-ions. i^or example:

(;oocl education follows di-: <{cvclopnicnt of the ci.iM

Che eniotiona; re)jti(vnshm Aith the ednc;i?or vs the central aspect of

;d! ethicati^ n. K\.t;, ihiutr t|,.it benefits Deaefits education,
lliv cliild's cai jci^y to tolerate tcns.oui ca vmly be increased if
tensions never surpass what the child cin stii ^v-
Prot^ress froni one phase of dcveh»pinent to the next is optimal wU.-u
there has been safiicient gr.itification: -.sot too :Mueh, not ^)o
little.

A good educator siiould Iiave a positive ;ittitiide towards the
ni.stinctnal hfe of the child, and understand its developmental
potential.

riie good educator oHcrs the cliih! material adapted to ius develop
nieut anti a\ the uionieiit in time when he is most rcjdv to
respond.

Secrets should he avoided in ediic:ition.-

The obiect of education is an entity in the process of heconnng
a human being fulncation should not focus on si)ecial functions,
faculties, ar skills, hut on the whole personahty. Educational
planning must be longitudinah taking into account the continuity
as weli as the discontinuity of different matiirational sequruces.
A(hdts nmst stinmlate and guide the spontaneous activity of
^;;ddren by offering tbein an environment that appeals to their urge
for self^realization. and by discouraging behavior that may block it.
Respect for a child's personality and trust in its inner potentialities
are prerequisites to the establislnnent of an adecpiate educational
alliance.

'I he dynamic aspect of education stems from a recognition of
the clnld's relation to the wodd. Its open connnunication with the

Montcssori and the Process of Education

world is ;] finulimicntj! factor in its clcvclopiucnt This gives the
concept of iidiiptutioii a central position in the process of ednca-
tion. l liere is a two-way dynann.sni involving exploration of and
iidaptation to the onter world on the one hand, and insight into an
organization of the inner world on the other. These two aspects of
edncation are interhnked. and rcsnit from tlie sjjontaneons activity
of the child in its environment. Adults are the representatives of
the outer wt)rlil and the most important source of information anci
guidance for the child. Older children also play an important role in
this connection.

The situational aspect of education involves the prepared
enviroinnent. Man is not born with preestablished behavior pat-
terns but with the ability to form them during youth, lie does this
through his personal experiences in iiis interaction with the
environment. These experiences are internalized, and thus struc-
ture liis inner world.

Tlic ego functions, including intelligence, are developed in this
way. Intellectual growth "depends upon internalizing events into a
'storage system' tliat corresponds to the environment. It is this
syste;n that makes possible tiie child's increasing ability to go
beyond ^•^•e information encountered on a single occasion. He does
this by making predictions, and extrapolations from his stored
model of the world."'* Montessori's term for tiiis "storage system"
is the absorbent mind.

This is a very important i.ssue, often (hsrcgarded or misun-
derstood. It is of tiie utmost relevance in deciding what type of
assistance is the most adequate in connection with intellectual
growtii. It is a conunon misconception that children, being so
inexperienced and incapable of dealing with abstractions, should be
offered an introduction to the world in sections chosen by an adult
and tnade to size, starting with pieces of their innnediatc enviiron
nient and progressing h\ ever-expanding circles to more distant aiicl
complex situations. , ^

If this kind of approach is follovsed, young adults, who are
supposed to be ready to start functicnin;.; .'udepcndently in the
world, will have a ver) restricted, haphi'i arci, and arbitrary knowl-
edge of it at their disposal. Unfortunately, this is often the case.

However, this presumed model of education does i:ot corre-

i:i)llC:,VI!()N I'OR HUMAN I>K\ |:L0P.\!KN'I

spDiul willi llic actual way iji which childrcu can he of>scrvccl to
accjuirc knowledge. \'oung cliihiren learu a mass of things uithont
any jja-ticular form of teaching l^y the age at three or fonr, they
liave aircatly forme<! the hasie ])afterns o? their ])ersona!itv 'I ;jc>
arc therefore pre])ared to take m j.'i^jjor >te|) toward further
independence by entering a new miheu, that of school. Nobody
lias, up tO this point, sejjarated and reduect! sections c^f the world
for them K) digest. They have been confronk-d from an r*ady age
with the wc.Tid at large rnd tl'icir "storage .s/st;ms" arc well stocked,
W'liat I'.iCv 'nter,'-.'li/e at aiiy given tinw/ is never entirely iicw„
There h-u m n a j^rcvious interna! aud indreel preparation foi" it.

'I'hc cho;. of wU-At is internalized and Hic tliffcrent activities
involved arc (hlcrmincd by a clnld fro'<. within. Nobody would
know Ikow to teach it lai;f^uage, for example. How could ajiyone
s)unv it how to select, ont of all tb-, sounds m its "aviroinnent,
those of language, or hinv to exercise the organs of sjK'cch and
reproduce sounds in order to express itself, 'Hie child docs this, and
indeed much more, on its own. This is why it nnist be offered what
is necessary or useful for it and then left free to function
indei>enclcntly. Nhiria Moutessori originally used the term "auto-
education" to designate this process.

Many aspcct,s of personality can be tested, and some jjredictions
can be made; but no one can jHcdict what the destiny of any one
individual will be. The only thing we can do is offer every child the
oi)portum!v to develoj^ according to its own potentialities, and to
acquire new perspectives that will facilitate its exploration and
internali/ation of the cultural world aronnci it. This is the purpose
of the jHcpared environment, including the \h)ntcssori materials,

.•\ny api)lication of Moutessori education derives its meaning
from these general i)rinciples. To sec how it can contribute to the
mainstream of innovation with rcsijcct to educational .process in
the school setting, I have chosen relevant sections of Jerome

iner s brilliant report on the Woods Hole conference as focal
points for tliscnssioii.

'Hiis conference, wbich was held on Cape Cod in 1959. was
called by the National Academy of Science. Some thirty-five
renowned scientists, scholars, and educators particijxitcd in the
discussions on the problems of modern education, Bruner, who was

Mojitessori and the Process of Education

chainiiaii of tlie conference, published his report under the title
The Process of Education^ I shall not follow the same sequence of
topics in comparing my views with those described by Bruner» but
the headings are the same, and indicate the portion of the book to
which they refer.

Readiness for Learning

Under this heading the hypothesis is presented that any subject
ean he taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any
child at any stage of development. It is called a bold hypothesis,
although no evidence exists, it is stated, to contradict it, and much
has been amassed that supports it. It was certainly a bold
hypothesis when Montessori started to test it in 1907, and the
world was startled by the results she obtained. Since then, her
original experiment has i.een repeated and elaborated upon in
schools the world over. W/ien tlie right n^ethods are used, one still
sees the same results, llrr thesis, therefore, should not really be
called a hypothesis any more, bold or otherwise. However, it is
certainly a hopeful sign that scientists have started to take it
seriously at last.

If one asks oneself why it has taken so long for this to happen,
the only possible answer is that there is evidently a prejudice in the
realm of pedagogy and developmental psychology with regard to
the young child. This has so far prevented any widespread scientific
consideration of what can be obser\'ed with convincing clarity in
Montessori schools.

The existence of a biased attitude within this realm of science
was confirmed by J. McV'icker Hunt in a treatise called *'7'he
Psychological Basis for Using Pre-Scliool Enrichment as an Anti-
dote for Cultural Deprivation."^ In it, he outlined six ''beliefs"
dominating the thinking of psychological theoreticians until the
niid-196()s that led to biased conclusions. One of these beliefs was
that preschool children have not reached the level of maturation
necessary to understand certain fundamental ideas required for a
specific type of operational thinking. Any attempt to stinmlate
such operational thinking was regarded as overburdening the child

l-.DVCXnOS FOR HUMAN nt:VKLOPMi:NT

intellectually, generating frustrations that would inhibit intellec-
tual performance later. Progressive eclucatiou consequently over-
enipliasized tlie iniportauee of freedom, fantasy, "creativitv," and
self expression.

These are of vital importance to the child, but they nnist be
integrated into a comprehensive .setting where other aspects of the
personality, particularly intellectual growth, are also taken into
account. If this grow'Ji is ignored, children's fuudamental needs are
neglected. Psychoanalytic experience sliows that this tends to foster
aggressive behavior. Frustrations are simply displaced from one
reahi» of psychic functioning to another, from the emotional to the
cognitive sphere.

It is not clear to me why it is so difficult to accept that if
nuituration is sufficient to permit what Piaget calls **concrete
operations" it can only be thanks to an inner development that has
been going on in the preceding period. It is particularly puzzling if
one knows that the child has developed a quantity of functions
pertinent to intelligence in that period. Nothing comes (?nt of the
blue in a developmental process. In addition, what is acquired in
the first six years of life in terms of learning becomes a characteris-
tic, forming part aiid parcel of the personality set-up. as both
Monk'ssori education and psychoanalysis have demonstrated.

Although Bruner does not preclude tlie '^.'Ossibility of instructing
younger children, he seems inclined to siiare the position of the
Geneva sdtool. which does not endeavor to do so because their
investfgaiion has shown that the "preoperatiouar' child (i. e., the
preschool child) lacks the concept of reversibility.^ As this concept
is basic to understanding fundamental ideas unucrlyiug mathe-
matics and physics, it would be useless to try introducing these
subjects at that stage. Bruner remarks that teachers are in general
severely hunted in transmitting concepts to a "preoperational"
child, even in a highly intuitive manner.

Both statements may be true, but I have some objections to
make. The Geneva school rightly describes the mental develop-
ment of the preschool child as being resultant of tlie cliiUrs
manipulating the world through action. My point is that this
manipulation is evidently ...'cessary to obtain the experience from
which the first conceptual tiiinking eventually emerges. It does not
happen without previous indirect preparation.

MoiitessoTi and the Process of Educatkm

lliis is one of tlie fuiidaineiital discoveries of Maria Montcssori.
It is to lier credit that she devised a means of introducing higlily
abstract concepts in a concrete way so tliat cliildrcn could explore
them at this early stage. 1*his means is the already mentioned
^'materialized abstractions/* materials that isolate a general princi-
ple or concept. A child manipulates them, perfornn'ng actions
(wliich it loves), and in the meantime, through this seusomotoric
experience, gets acquainted with the principle or concept involved.
It is also taught the terms tliat go with it. This experience quickens
its progress toward the next stage, that of "operational thinking." "

The Geneva School

It is particularly bewildering to me that the later developments
in Montessori education have been ignored by the Geneva school.
Jean Piaget, the grand old man of this school, knew Maria
Montessori very well and was, in fact, president of the Swiss
Montessori Society in the 19>0s. Me worked along very much the
same lines as Montessori. basing his thinking on direct observation
of the behavior of children, and taking into account the sequences
of development he observed and the interaction with the environ-
ineiit (albeit emphasizing in my opinion a bit too nuicli the role of
the latter).

I believe this overemphasis is related to the two things I find
fault with in his otherwise very impressive contribution. I^'irst,
Piaget seems to identify what is outwardly observable in the child's
beha\ior or what it verbalizes, with that which takes place in its
inner world, '['his is a mistake made by many other behavioral
scientists, and is, in niy opinion, the result of an unfortunate
prejudice.

1'o give a simple example, most adults have not cultivated their
artistic potential to the extent that they are able to draw an
accurate and realistic picture of another person whom they know
very well. Nonetheless, \ am quite certain that they have such a
picture in their own minds. There is clearly, then, a gap between
what is in the mind and what can be exj)ressed. "^I'his is particularly
true in learning processes, when one is dealing with something
previously unknown. First, there is a passive acquisition of the new

FDUCAHON K)K HUM \N I)K\ KLOI'MKM

infornuitioii. 'I'liis is iissiniihitccl. l)ut it is not yet iiitcriiali/.ccl. Only
w'licn (liitii hccoiiics pjrt oi ii person is lie nbic to acti\cly use it.

In tlic uisc of (Icvclupniciit. tlic* process is cn cii longer. I Icrc.
tlicrc is first an luiconscions acipiisitioii of information whicli
corresponds to a particniar function that is to be formed at a gi\en
stage of inatiiratiou. W e can. therefore, he certain that a diild's
first ])rinnti\e drawings of people are not tlie same as the image of
Inunan heings in its mind. (I ha\'e in mind the well-known drawing
(if a kind of egg with foiu sticks sticking outof it designating arms
anc! It-^s. eacli w ith fi\e stripes for fingers and toes, and a smaller egg
for the face, with rudnnentar\ signs to indicate the eyes, nose,
nioutli. and hairs.)

\\ hat has happened is that the child has percei\'ecl a great
ipiantity of people. It has elaborated its impressions of them to the
extent that it can reduce them to a scheme connnon to all, which
reflects their essence, as it were. This rudimentary drawing is the
result of an abstraction. It has taken j)laee unconsciously, that is
true, but it has ne\ertheless taken place. The product cannot be
used to jtidge the eapacit\- of the child's mind for abstraction.
S{)metlung can be learned from it about the wa\- in which this inner
acti\it\ is manifested in obserxable beha\'ior. hut tliis is not the
same thing. The ehilcPs capacity for sensory di' crimination, the
cjuality >f its |)ercepti(jn of reality, its seiise ot ])roportions, its
artistic evaluation of pict{)ral representations ni general, cannot be
determined from what it has draw n, Yet this is w liat Piaget tends to
do with the material he assend)les from his ohserx ations.

My second objection to Piaget is that he then proceeds to
interpret and categorize this material using standards of adult
h>gie.^ The system is j)erfect, but tlie image of the einid that results
from it is distorted. In one of her writings •* Montessori discusses
the results of judging the newborn child morphologically by adult
standards. I*Vom this stand])oint. it is a monster. She also pointed
out how painters in the Middle Ages and later, not yet being
conscious of the morphological differences between adults and
ehildren, gave children the proportions of adults, so that they
resend)]cd dwarfs. These painters were \'cry skilled in jjerceiving
and reproducing reality. lloue\er. their prejudice regarding what
children were like j)revente(l them from representing children as
tliev reallv were.

A/onfc'.v.sor/ and the Proceas of Education

I Ijclic'Vc tluit .soiiictlniig siniiliir occurs in Piagct's psycliology,
iiiul tliat it is tlic reason lie overlooked the finulamental discovery
of Montessori meiitionecl above. 1 have discussed this matter at
length because \ ;nn convinced that no real progress can he made in
tlie study of intellectual growth if this a priori attitude prevails.
The view of the child as an imperfect adult is based on prejudice,
and only if this prejudice is rooted out can unbiased research on
hu!uan development he done. Ft is particularly important that this
be done now that scienfists of Bruner\s stature have, at last, paved
the way for an ajjproach to education based on this kind of
research.

W'e can already predict, fronj Montessori's experience, some of
the |)heuomeiKi that unprejudiced researchers will encounter with
regard to the readiness for learning of the preschool child in a
prepared environment. For example, children have an inner need to
le;iru. If they receive -adecjuate help, they respond to this need with
an astounding intensity of involvement and concentration on a
given task, and, what is more, they perform the task fully. I^hcy
derive satisfaction from their own activity, which is highly meaning-
ful to theni, not from the teacher's appreciation of their work or
grades. The acquisition of information is felt to be a discovery. The
formation of a new function is experienced as a conquest. The
children*s egos are strengthened, and they develop a love of work
and a respect for the environnwmt that offers them the sources of
the saHs faction described above.

This is, in my opinion, of particular importance in our time. If
liuman dignity and joy in living are not to be smothered by the
Inckistrial Age, the true vahie of work as an aspect of nian*s
creativity and cosmic task nmst be restored. This is only possible if
education takes into consideration the earliest roots of work, the
activities related to the inner construction of the personality, and
not merely directed toward an external goal. It is from this .source
that the child gets its motivation to learn, and it is a strong one.
Teaching has a developmental function only if it corresponds to
this motivation.

'Ilie child's own response is the best guide in this respect. If it is
one of interest and coiicentration, then one is on the right track. I
am, of course, speaking of children who have gone through the
process of normali/atiori. On this foundation a curriculum can

EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DKVKLOPMKNT

indeed be built around the great issues, principles, and values that a
society deems worthy of the contiiuial concern of its members. This
can be accomplished even on the prepriniary level, as Montessori
education has demonstrated with a great deal of success.

The Importance of Structure

In discussing the function of learning to serve the future,
Bruner points to tlie distinction made by psychologists between
learning as a transfer of specific training (the utility of which is
limited in the main to skills) and learning as a transfer of principles
and attitudes that involves the continual broadening and deepen-
ing of knowledge in terms of basic and general ideas. He rightly
states that this second type of transfer is at the heart of the
educational process. He also states that a great deal of research is
needed to know what it takes to produce this kind of learning but
tliat "it would seem that an important ingredient is a sense of
excitement about discovery— of regularities, of previously unrecog-
nized relations and similarities between ideas, [and the] resulting
sense of self-confidence in one's abilities."**^ I believe that iMon-
tessori education can serve as a focal point for nuich of this
research.

I have aheady explained the function of the Montessori
material. However, I wish here to connect it witli the concept of a
transfer of principles and attitudes just mentioned. Tliis is an area
even Montessori-trained teachers sometimes find difficult to under-
stand. The role of the Montessori material is not to present all
knowledge in concrete form. That would be too difficult for a child
to understand from verbal instructions only. Nor is it to break
down a complex thing into its elements. If that were tlie case, it
would only ser\'e the more limited goal of learning in the sense of a
specific transfer of training.

Teachers who think of the Montessori material in this way still
have in mind the old conception of school education. Conse-
quently, they find the Montessori material too Innited and proceed
to "improve*' matters by flooding the classroom with quantities .of
additional material. I can testify from niy own experience to what

Motitessori and the Process of Educatioti

extremes of iiioiiklike devotion and patience tliese nn'sgiiided
Montessori teacliers ean go. Wliat time and money tliey are willing
to spend to prodnee this mass of most attractive-looking hallastf
And how prond tlicy are of it.

It places one in a most nncomfortahle position, ft is hard to
react adeqnately when a loyal pnppy jnnips into onr sitting room to
deposit a dead sparrow it has gone to great lengths to catch for ns.
It looks at ns with tail wagging, fnll of expectation, waiting for its
reward, Still, a dead sparrow is what it has bronght ns, Psvchologi-
cally speaking, what these teachers actnally do is destroy the trnc
fnnction of the Montessori material.

T'he material is intended to facilitate a transfer of nonspecific
knowledge, that of a general idea or principle that can later be nsed
as a basis for recognizing special cases or applications of it.
Montessori material should be developmental. It slionld be limited
to essentials, and shonld be constructed so that a particular general
idea or principle is isolated. The children then become conscious of
this idea or principle by handling the material in the way they are
: instructed. T'he built-in controls of error show them when thev are
wrong. The insight they gain into the underlying general principle
or idea is felt as a personal discovery. They are fascinated by it and
will repeat an exercise time and again with great concentration
until they have fully absorbed the principle or concept it illustrates.

1*he subsequent applications of what is learned in this way may
be limitless, .And, as Bruner writes, "1'he best way to create interest
in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make the
knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in
which the learning has occurred." Educational material should
facilitate this kind of learning. Classrooms should not be cluttered
with other material that distracts the child. For example, if
smelling bottles were specifically for the development of smelling as
a .skill, one might well want to have dozens and dozens of different
fragrances all bottled and ready for matching. Our young students
would soon be connoisseurs of odors. However, the purpose of
smelling iiottlcs is not a knowledge of odors, but an awakening of
the sense of snielh since the intellect is built upon the alertness of
the senses. A few bottles suffice for this purpose. A huge quantitv
would not only be confusing, but would result in overkill.

FniMlAllON FOR Ul.'MAN DIIVKIOPMKN'I

Intuitive and Analytic Thinking

111 stressing tlic importance of a student's intuitive, ratlier tliaii
formal, uiiclerstanding of siil)jects. Briiner advises tliat we sliould
distingiiisli l)et\vcen inarticulate genius and articulate idiocy. He
iiiaiiitaiiis that the emphasis of much of traditional schooling and
traditional types of examinations leads to the latter. Students can
reproduce vcrhal oi^niunerical formulas, hut they have no ahility to
use tliein in a meaningful way. Hriiner suggests that intuitive
thinking should complement analytic thinking, and that cnrricu-
lums should he plaimed accordingly. "The ohjcctive of education."
he poiiitsout. "is not the production of self-confident fools."

1 fullv agree. 1 should like to stress in this connection that
cnrricuhnns should not he planned in such a manner that each
snhjcct is treated as a separate entity, disconnected from everything
else. At a time when ecology was still a fairly unknown hrancli of
science. Mtnitessori proposed to introduce it as a vehicle for the
coordination of different suhjects and as a model to he adopted in
other fields of instruction. In this way. the iiiterrehitedness of
natural pheiioineiui would hecoinc apparent to the children.
Kurtliermore. thinking wonld he cond)iiied with action and experi-
mentation, so that not onh the mind hut the whole personality of
the child would he involved.

Aids to Teaching

With regard to the nsc of technical devices other than the
.\h)iitessori material (such as films, tapes, and television) as aids to
teaching, we can. in the main, adhere to Brmier's conclusion that
"the teacher's task as connnunicator. model, and identification
figure can he supported hy a wise use of a variety of devices that
expand experience, clarify it. and give it personal significance."
Such devices must, however, fit in with the general approach
descrihed at the hegiiming of this chapter in order to serve their
purpose. I'his cannot he stressed sufficiently.

This means tluit whatever the teacher hrings into the environ-

Montessori and, the Process of Education

iiicnt iimst have j dcfiintc purpose, and it iiiiist liavc a definite
purpose for indiv idiial children. 'I'he teacher determines this
purpose from c)l)serving tlie chilcireu. It is \sise to reniend)er tluit a
materia! addled to the environiucut is stimulating to a child. If it
has always heen there, it hecouies part of the scenery and is not
noticed. What is not in use should ])e removed, no matter how
professional it makes the environment appear. Classrooms where
this principle is not observed sometimes look like they should be
captioned "IBM for Children." Another j)rincip!!ie to rcmend)er is
that it is the atlult who has a purpose in bringing material into the
classroom. J he children are not aware of this purpose. This lack of
awareness is what leads them to feel that they are in fact teaching
thenisehes. **\ just taught myself* is a phrase that is often heard in
a good classroom. If the opposite is true, if the children feel it is the
material that is doing the teaching, its presence in the en\aronment
is suspect.

Motixen for Learniivj,

.Mthough this topic has alread\ I)een discussed, J would like to
conclude hy quoting once more from Bruner's remarks on the
subject, for they indicate what Montessorrs contribution to
contemi)orar\ education can be. "Nh)tives for learning," lie wr-tes,

iniist he kept Uo\\\ going passive in an age of spect^rorshij). th'-\
iimst he based as much as possihle upon txte arousal ot niterest i
what tlierc is tt) he learned, and they must he kept broad and dive.
in expresMon The danger signs of nieritocrac v and a new form ot
eoiMpetitiveness are ahead\ m evidence. Aheady it is possihie to see
where advance j)launing can help. Such planning, and the research to
suj)p<irt It, should he iiucn priority."

Moutessori education not only works along the lines prciposed
in Brimer's report, but it makes certain contributions that are more
far reaching. 'I herefore, 1 suggest that the researcii proposed in llie
Process (if l\ducdti(m should certainly include a serious study of
Moutessori education and its application in tlie school.

kducation for human dkvklop •

NOTES

1, Helena A MiDc/:. "A Proposjl for the hiipro»cinent )f Educjtioii
ill Anicricj," The Amencan Biolo^v Teacliar^ %ol. 27. no. I (jwniiary 1965).

2. E. C. Frijling-Sclircudcr, ""'r/MjUgr r-v '.^u I'iducjtioii," j pjpcr rejd
to Hit- Dutch PsyX'ho::injKtic;d Society. :\ni:i.;«Tdain. Fchrujry 5. 1970.

y. Jerome S. Bruner. iVmc/rJ c Vhc-'zy of InstTUCtion (Cjnibridge,
Mjss.- Belknjp. Hjnjrd University iV--^-?-.. p. 5.

4. Jeronu- S. Brinier. The Proivr: ;// EduL'ation (Cjinhridge. Mj5s.:
Ihir\'jrd Univeisity Prcs.s. 1966)-

5. In Tfw Challenge of Incompetence and Poverty (Urbjnj: Univer-
sity of Illinois. 1969]. pp. 2-v

6. 71ie Geneva school geiierjlly refers ^> fcjn Piii^e Barbel Inliel-
der, jnd their associates at the Institute ology and the Interna-
tional O uter of C^eiit'tic Kpistenioloi , U :va, Switzerland. For
similarities between tlieir findings and education, sec Mon-
tessori: A Modem Approach (New Yoil Books. 1971). pp. 2v
26.-P. L.

7. riie basic difference here lies in the concept "'readiness for
karni'^^." Tlie Geneva school emphasizes tlie inatiuational development

, ci tl • chtld tlirougli tlie stages of preoperational, operational, and formal
op«.: ■ t^iiiul thinking. 'I'lie cliikl is considered "ready" to learn any subject
at jfH* providing it is approached on the right level.

Montessori also recognized iiiaturational stages development (tlie
sensitive periods, which include physical, emotion a!, and cognitive develop-
ment). S!ie was less interested in defining these stages than in meeting the
needs of tlie diild which they represented. She did not consider whether a
child was "ready" to leani any particular subject, but rather devised her
materials solely to meet the recognizable needs of the child during the
various sensitive periods. Therefore, the phrase "readiness for learning" is
not used in Montessori education. Tlie words "aiding the child's develop-
n.ept in its sensitive periods" are^—P. I..

8. h'or an explanation of liis metliod in doing this, see Jean Piagct,
Logic and Psychology (New York: Basic Books. 1958).

9. Maria Montessori, Pedagogical Anthropology (New York: Stokes,

19n).

10. Bruiier, The Proc^Hs of Education, p. 20.

n. Ibid., p. >1.

12. Ibid., p. 65.

n. Ibid., p. 91.

14. Ibid., p. 80.

EDUCATION IN A
CHANGE WORLD

Wlien uc consider iiiaiikiiicl iis a uliolc. it scciiis apparent tliat it
docs not adapt easily to changes, even those it lias brought a bant
itself. Vet. man is prond of h > free will, his freedom of choice, and
his independence, lie also has a grea'^cr capacity for adap* ^tion
than animals, as well as greater inJ-elligencc, which enables biin to
learn llirongh experience. In practice, however, this is not so
evident. Kgocentricity, intolerance, prejndice, stubbornness, nar-
* funiindedness, conforniism, and intellectual and nu^ral confusion
are rampant the world over.

'Iliis state of affairs, in LOinbuiation with the steadily accelerat-
ing technical progr. . .nd the growing population cone - ntration in
new industrial areas, is certainly not favorable to a harmonious
development of the personality. The struggle for life is clearly
aggravated, imd the tensions in interpersonal relationships have
increased. Automation of labor Is accompanied by ever-increasing
specialization, which tends to preclude an overall view of the field
one is working in. The iiidi\idual pursues immediately attainable
goals. Dedication to work is eroded by the lure of wages, which
then become an end in theuiselves. Competition increases, and
relationships become more superficial and casual. Bureaucracy
increasingly restricts personal freedom, and man becomes a mere
digit. 'Hiis diminishes his serse of responsibility toward the
community and its political st^'ictures. lie becomes 'ucreasingly
lonely.

viiov H)K HUMAN diaki.oi'Mjm

Survival as a person in this turbulent and c\ cr cliangiiig world is
so clifficnli that even man's capacity to love and give of himself
seems to give way before the cra\ ing for power, opportunism, and
hypocrisy. The old \ahies and institutionalized patterns of beha\'ior
no longer pro\ idc adequate norms. ^*et they are still clung to. and
as a result there is growing discrepancy between eonscious and
unc{)iLsei()us moti\ations.

In I^H6. in a lecture ccuisidered impressi\e at the time, though
now perhaps largel\ forgotten. Maria Montessori deserii;cd the
impasse now threatening mankind.' She pointed out that we are
living m a new world, a \' )rld constructed with wonderful rapidity
in the past century tliroui^li the cooperation of intelligent men and
w ith the help of machines. This world was not consciously w illed by
man. I le was. in fact, surprised by it. Ne\ertlu.!ess. humanity is now
united by connnon interests, and its home is no longer a specific
nation, but iiie whole planet, l^'ormerly. the unity of men was only
tUi ideal. Now. exterior de\eh)i)nients are creating a real unity of
material interests, and thus hning the groundwork for the rctdi/.a
tion of that spiritual ideal.

I lowe\er. this surprising acliie\ cment does not seen? to us to be
a triumj)h. ft seems, ratlicr. to he an awe.somc menace because
man's de\'elopn«rtit has itot kept p:i< with his technological prog-
ress. .Man is noi con^, i:)i*s of his ciianged position in the world
around him and therefore continues to cherish all the prejudices
ingrained in his soul during the course of history.

'I'he need to help man toward a new consciousness nf, and a
new adaj^tation U , ('?e world m which he li\es. is evident. In (ui--
time. man. whether lonqneror or concjuered. is the slave of his own
enviroiunent. Seldom, if ever before, has he reached ^uch .v:
extreme of impotence. \\'e are all. today, living in insecurity uud
fear. W e are in bondage. e\ en though we are not willing to .linU
it. and therefore re|)eat the stereotyped refrain that we a:c f(;;
freedom and independence. Real freedom will only ])e possible
when the balance between man and his environment has !)ten
restored: in other words, when man has de\eh ped new values and
has a more complete nuistery of his en\ ironment. Only then will ht
he able to break his self-made and useless bor Is and dc\ elop a firm
orientation in the new circumstances of his world.

Education in a Chaui*nv^ World

Moiitcssori presented these ideas in 1946. Today, it is all too
evident how difficult it is for adults to change their views, let alone
ulter their way of life. It is only ' hen <;ne studies man's
development that his eaj)aeity for adaptjfion and the flexibilitv of
Ins miv.id lu'conie apparent. Children have special potentialities
e!i-;ible them, through interacti{>n with their environment, to
/i hiew self realization. They do tiu . first, by becoming one with
tlieir immedi;Ue cnvironnxnt. I'lns unity enables them to achieve
h'Lcdom withm their world as adults. *I'he basic patterns of tlicir
hcliavior and their basic at' tndes toward tla-mselves. other people,
and tiieif environnjeut are all determined in this early period. In
Montessori's words.

Because nun is boni ni diffc-rent periods of histoi>. to uhich he
always has to adji>t liinisclf. it is inipL-niti\e th;it !iis l)uing nnist fii^t
of all receive and collect, until the foinidation is bid for L-vcrv
specific adaptation to the specific environment of that historical
nioniL'nt in which hv was born. l lms. ihv first year of life ippear^ js j
period of exceptional activity in which tliL- whok- unvnomncMit is
absorbed by the psyche. In the second year, the child approaches its
physical completion: its movements become determinate. This
proves phnnly how. in ;iccordaiice with the natural pjttern nf
development, the movenient.s are determined by tiie psych ie life."

However, children need the guidance of adults as well; their
development into mdependent and u::iture personalities depends
on their further education. It s a mistake to think ti»at this
development will ha]}pen of its -^wn acccvrd. or that the j)ersonalitv
traits considered necessary for wcn-adjustv*d behavior within a
conn nun ity come into being onlv dming adolescence. A lone and
indir;.xt process of j)reparati()n is necessary before these trait^
become manifest. Personal evperienees durini: early childhood
determine the role they play lU the mature personality, as well as
how they are expressed.

Because the basic patterns of human behavior are not deter-
mined by herechty. as in the case of aniinals. cliildr.en must build
these up through their ov . activities. Front the li'eginning. rhev
stiK v to achieve their personal aims, but they are dependei?t for
their realization on the po.ssibil ikies provided by their environn

KOUCVllON FOR HUMAN DtAFroPMKNT

Reality imposes restrictions on vvliat can be acconiplishcci, cducn
tors posit norms, social life prescribes specific rules of conduct,
society expects varions skills and knowledge of its mer;ihcrs\ and
their own bodies have their demands.

Further, the pattern of development inhereiit in the formation
of UKJu and which intrinsically guides the ijnOi jdnal toward
maturity, umst be considered. This is manifested the form of
inner needs, differing according to the level of nuihiration, that
direct the per.sonality toward specific objects, activities, and experi-
ences necessarv for healthy development and adaptation, 'fiiese
needs serve to maintain the hahiuce between the psychosomatic
unity of the person and his environment.

Professor A. A. Schneiders of Boston College calls all physiologi-
cal and psychological inner needs of this kind the intrinsically
determined motivating factors of human beiiavior. fie also points
out their fundamental importance to the harmonious development
of personality.-^ 'Hie Lai that so many different factors play a part
in the development t^r ilic personality precludes the prevention of
conflicts. This is not in itself harmful, provided solutions are sought
that lead to a further integration and enlargement of eouscionsness.

Here, the aid of education is indispensable. For example, the
striving for independence is a fmuiauK'utal charactcri.stic of man
that mauifest^ tself from early youth on. provided a child fcclsr
sufficiently secure. If too nuicb. or too little, i.s asked of children in
this respect, they make no attempt at independence. 'Fhcir physical
growth may continue, but as persons they remain dependent aiid
uncertain^ even as adults.

\u a paper reau some years ago to teachers of secondary schools,
I disc issed another aspect of this problem— tlie emergence of gangs
and juvenile delinquency among teenagers who are left to their own
devices as they advance toward independence. Neither their
parents nor their schools scein to be able to give them the aid
necessary for them to orient themselves in their woHd.^ Some vcars
ago, J. Fdgar Floover, the late head of the F.B.I., called the
increasing mind)er of juvenile delinquents dangerous to the future
of the countr\\ More recently, a report was piiblislied in England
dealing with the increasing amount of venereal disease among
teenagers and pinpointing the laxness and indifference of parents

I'.ducdtion in a Cfitini;iii^ W orld

regarding t!ic cciucation of tiicir ciiiiclrcii iis ;i co-cictcniiiiiiiig
factor.

J'!ic attitude of jjareuts tdw.ird tlicir cliildrcn in early youtli. as
\\v\] as during pu!)(;rtv. is niK|uc'stH)nal)ly a wry important factor in
dck-riuining tiicir luu^fr attitude toward t! it- jn selves and tlieir
fellow lunnau !)eings. *l'lie first ])liase of life is of special importance
because it is then that the deveiopuient of personality ' ikes place
hi the uiiconscitjus and provities the basis on which further
individuation takfs place.

I'iiese insijjhts {.-ouie from the pioneering v^ork of Siguunui
Freud, whose thecMv of personality may be rcj^arded as the most
influential and icomjjreluiisive to date. Psychoaijaiysis has brought
to light fundaineutal and previously luiknown features of human
develoui icnt, and thus contributed considerably toward :i better
uudcrstandnig of the iniconscious dynamics inherent in the genesis
of personality. The model constructed from it indicates both the
continuity and the successive variety of the basic pattern of
d'jvclopment. At the same tnne, it takes into account the psycho-
logical as well as the biological and sociological detenninaiit.s of
behavior. Psychoanalysis has not onb cstablisi the influence of
tiie infantile situation in the formation of character. It has also
shown how obstinately the patterns of adaptation cstaljli.slied at
this early stage persist in the adult personality, even if they prove
inadequate to cope with the adult's life situation.

The decisive role of infantile experiences and en '>tional reac-
tions has been demonstrated again and again, it is. it present,
accepted in the majority of the theories of personality, though «
there are siiarp differences of opinion about the nature and
interpretation of findings. Tlie following views are quite generally
accepted: One, the wa\ in which a cliilci experiences different
methods of education and infant cue has a lasting effect on its
personalits", Two, the feeling of insecurity and fe^u experienced hy a
bab\' when its need for food, comfort, sceurity, or love is too
strongly or abruptly frustrated has an especially unfavorable effect.
It may result in a deeply ingrained attitude of distrust of other
people and the world in general. Three, still ukkc nnportant is the
parent-child relationship during the whole period of development,
particularly the first three years

KUrCVIION FDR IU \1 v\ DIA K.I.OI'MKVT

' ouhl like to discuss some of the „H,st C(,i„„,on pmblcnis in
j >is regard aiKl their «,i.sec|ue.Kes for the ad.dt pcrso.iulitv
Re,eel.(,n of eluklre.i mk.v lead to uneertaintv ;.„d self clevahuitioiV

'^"'i^-'' ''>■ '"'Utility, rehelhousi.ess. <,r other negative'

l>eliavH.r, „r else to apatlu and indifTerenee ni adnlt life Their
;'l"l>tv to g.ve and receive love will akvavs he prohleniatic. Maternal
overproieetion. if indulgent, may lead io egoism, egocentridtv
.rrespoMsd.ihtv. and a redncecl tolerance of frnstiation: if dennina't-
n.g. It n.av lead to snhnnssiveness. awkwardness, a lack of initiative

and passive <lependencc In hoth case., a heightened and)i^aleMCc

in relalnmships with the opposite sex is to he expected. Too strict
.^cipln.e may stnimlate a basic attitude either of conformism or of
rebellion. Inconsistent or in.deqnate discipline mav Weaken a
person s self-control ami abihty to reach decisions or eoi,frcm"t
normal d.tf^ciiltKs. An anthontarian and int.Jerant attitude on tnc
|.art o parents with regard to ti.-e behavior of then children
gcnemlK .nceases feelings of guilt and conflicts of conscience and
there :s a Ingh probability that the children will develop into rigi<l
pcrs<maht,es. Ihc generallv aecepte.r theories <,f pc-rsonalitv also
akt^ into account fannlv relationships, the positn.n of the cliild in
the tamdv. sd^ rivalry, and the educational situation in general
^'11 ot vUnclrare held to influence the development of ll,;
l)ers0iialit\.'

-Xlany more examples could he given of the fact that modern
psvcl.ologv regards the adecinate gratificati.m of inner needs as -
"Khspensable to the optimal, dcveloinnent of the pcrsonalitv
hese needs are not cnily for food, rest, and affection, but also for
stnnnlation. self-devdopmcnt. exploration. in<lependence and a-
sponsib.htv. There mav be a diffaonce of opinion ab.n.t tli'e wav hi
which t,:.s gratification should conic about, but its nec-.ssit^ 'for
lieaitljy 'levelopment is accepted bv all.

'IV- ,e views are wholly in acco'rdance with .Vlontcssori orhici-
ples. It would seem useful, then, for other educators to studv" these
princ.ples. regardless of eventual differences of opinion about their
practical apphcations. The method is not in itself of particiilir
importance. Wh.t is essential is !!,e rcali/ation that cducatim,
plays a fundamental role in the development of the personalitv It
It esseuu.il to give form. Content, and direction to personal

EdtWiition in a Changing World

existence. This function of cclncntion can only be renlizecl to a
significant extent if educators are guided by the knowledge of the
mner needs determining human development and the influence of
unconscious education is taken into account.

In our time, especially in view of the necessity for collaborating
in- our construction of a peaceful nuclear age, we may not disregard
our responsibility to ethKJte our children properly, it is not an easy
task, but one we nmst attempt; Although we hve in a world of
contrachctions, it is. nevertheless, rupidly becoming a connnon
workL As a result, we become involved in nn ever-increasing
number of social contests as we come into contact with vie\ss,
customs, ways of hfe. iind vahics that differ from our own. flow can
young people orient themselves in a world where they are being
overwhehned by incoherent i;npressions, artificial stinmh, threats of
war, materiahstic philosophies, and double standards of morals;
when the\' are surrounded by ad nits who often do not under^>tand
them because they themselves cannot iidjust to too rapid changes,
who are too busy to be bothered, or whc only emphasi/.c the
immatniity of the young without providing any constructive \isions;
to guide them; \shen their uiost obvious sources of inspiration are
television and the bizarre products of industries speciah/.ing in the
juvenile market and apneaHng to the njost superficial aspects of
their still unstiible selves:^

it is not surprising that, on the threshold of adulthood, young
people tend to shrink from responsible participation in this
apparently chaotic reabtv, that they take refuge in a world of their
own making, (?MC that reflects their inexperience, their labile
emotional Hfe. aiid tlieir innnatnrity. 'i'herc is something demon-
strative, even defiant, about this phenomenon, as if the young
uould hke to say, "If you can't be bothered about us, we will assert
ourselves in our own way." 'I'his often takes the form of a forced
attempt at adulthood, even to bringing into the world children
uliom they are totally incapable of niising. In tiiis way, they add to
the increasing number of unbalanced people in our culture.

We have no right to dissociate ourselves from these phe-
nomena, frouj "the youth of today.** 'l*he difference between them
and us resides not in their youth itself, but in the circnnistances in
which the\ are growing up. We. the adults, are responsible for these

KOtlCVnON FOK HL'MAN nFVKI.OPMKM

Circumstances, and licncc for their coiiscqncnccs. It is our duty to
look for the means tliat will enable the adults of tomorrow to live
in peace with themselves and their world.

Education will, in any case, have to devote itself to the
development of world citizens. The conception of "cosmic educa-
tion," which Montessori introduced on the occasion of the
International Montessori Conference in Amsterdam in 1950, and
which is discussed in Chapter 8, was intended as a contribution in
this direction.

l ive idea found no acceptance then. Apparenth. the time was
Hot ripe for such a reform. Perhaps the present world situation is
more conducive to it. The interdependence of nations is constantly
increasing. The prosperity and adversity of one is reflected in the
others, and the necessity of accepting the idea of a world
connnnmty has become more obvious.

1'hose who are aware of this should give the coming generation
])oth a vision of the common destiny of humanity and a more
adequate preparation for active cooperation to further connnon
interests. W e have already shown that adults do not easily change
tfieir accustomed views and tlia i man has been unable to keep pace
with the too-rapid changes brought about by his own inventions.
Only a minority are mature enough to use these inventions
cons truer ivelv. In general, our situation can be compared with that
of an unbalanced child in possession of a loaded gnu. lii his pursuit
of progress, iwan has ignored his own development.

Xhiria MoiiT, sor; said on tins subject thut "man has not yet
built the saiiif spiritual defences which hygiene prestribcs for the
body; no scientific aid whatsoever has been given ro help tbv
adaptation to radically changed ways of life. WTiiir he is in
connnand f)f the riches and power of the earth., man lias neglected
the supreme energy of his own intellect." ^ The accuracy of her
words is well illustrated in the pithy, brilliant description jacques
Bar/.un gives of our democratic culture, particularly with respect to
the degradation of the Innnan intellect.'^

It is, therefore, an urgent nece^Jsity that the eniph:'«is in
scienHfic thought not be only on the qualities of tlie objective
wodd. J qual weight should be given to the study of forces
dctermimng subjective behavior, wliich are still largely unknown.

Education in a C/zu/ii^i/ig World

Hopefully, then, new ways of coping with onr changing world in a
more efficient way. will be cliscovcrccL

The sitnation is comphcatcd by the rapiditv with which the
hnnian sciences have developed and branched ont. Because of tin's,
they possess few certainties- At the same time, certainties are
demanded in increasing measure by society. Scientists are thus put
under pressure. They have to bei>ave as authorities while being
daily confronted by the insnfEciency of their knowledge concerning
their objects of study.

Man is not so Ci^sily fathomed. Not only are there many
determinants to his behavior, but the vagueness and fluidity of his
psychic life and the elusiveness of the spiritual aspect of his being
make scientific research difficult. There is also the lack of distance
between subject and object (which in this case coincide; to contend
with. It is not mere chance that it took the enipiried sciences so
long to turn to the study of man's inner life.

Perhaps partly because of the speed with which this develop-
ment did take place in the past decades, we find within this vast
field of activity much the same situation as that in society in
general. In :reasing specialization has made it difficult for scientists
to obtain an overall view of their own fields of study. As a result,
they are inclined to retire to their own small area of experience and-
to ignore or vehemently combat their neighbors' findings. Because
of this, their work often lacks an integrative purpose. They seem
like drifting boats in the ever-increasing stream of practical
problems. Sometimes they collide with one another; sometimes
the\ are aided by another's wake. .Actually, they lead nowhere. The
general impression is often one of pseudo-science.

This unsatisfactory state of affairs makes the need for intcgra-
ti(m obvious A growing number of scientists are becoming
conscious of the connnon destiny of their efforts. Consequently, a
willingness to cooperate to create "a comprehensive science of
inair'8 is becoming apparent. Partly because of poor connnunica-
tion. this cooperation is only laboriously coming about. Actually,
not much of it is evident, as yet. This is true even in particular
disciplines and subdisciplines. ft is also true in education, and for
that matter in developmental psychology, whicli is no more than an
umbrella for a hirge variety of views and findings.^

i pointed out tiuit Montcssori's vision oF iiuui is tiiu most
v;iiiuii)iL' and sciLMitiftc;illy fruitful ;ispcct of iicr spiritu;il iicritngc. f
l)cIicvL' tiuit it is ;i useful point of cicpurturu for a new, coniprc-
liLMLsivc study of uuni. In it \\v may tuui a catalyst for tlic kind of
cooperation nicntiouccl ai)()vc. particularly in tiic service of educa-
tion, in my opinion, the study of man should jnimarily i)C
concerned witii man in infancy, when iiis existence is marked hv
seeming helplessness, but when he is actually involved in a potent
inner activity. The essence of what is created bv this inner activitv
eludes us. Nevertheless, it is of greater significance than all man's
later creative acliie\.enients.

In infancy, thv human being possesses specific potentialities
whose nature is ur.xnown to us, but whose effects have struck nian\
scientists. The tiiscovc'ries of Maria Montessori and Signuuid I->end
luue contributed cjreaMv to our understanding of man at this early
>t:u.;c tii diveh i .:tcnt, Kreud studied unconscious drives and their
manifestations m emotionally disturbed adults within a special
therapeutic situation; Montessori studied the manifest behavior of
normal children in a specially prepared pedagogical situation. Both
sought to explain the phenomena they observed, and both found
general patterns in the de\elopment of the human being. In
essence, these seem to confirm and to complement each other,

PsNehoanalytic thought has nndergoue. in later vears. a shift
toward the consideration of normal development. Since this was
the starting point of Montessori education, greater collal)oration
between the two disciplines may he conceivable in the future, fn
any event, they do have many principles in connnon. W'c should
starf from these, and adapt our educational aims to the basic
patterns deveh>j)ment found. We will then he giving education '
a wider scoi)e. tiiat of helping in the formation of man. \Vc should
do tins from tiie verv beginning of life. Some will think that this
Aay will take too long to be of any practical use in the solution of
the problems confrontiug education today. We should renieinber,
liowever. that the stimulus for our present technical progress was
not the study of the macrocosmo,s. It was the studv of the
nncrocosmos. of particles too minute even to he seen.

The forces within the atom, for so long unknown to man,
appear to be so potent that they will enable him to visit other

Education in a Changing W'orld

planets, or to destroy himself ehtirely. Is it, then, so stninge to
iissumc that the study of the still mysterious forces of the inind,
which enahle the young child to construct within itself the
foundations of its personal existence, may reveal things hcncficial
to man's development? 1 do iiot think so. Nor did Maria
Montessori, or for that matter many others.

In my opinion, education can only help to solve the present
impasse in human atTairs if it abandons its traditional preoccupa-
tion with t!;e leaching of skills and the transfer of knowledge. Its
goal should he, instead, to aid the basic patterns that direct man
from within, so that balanced development can take place. Only in
this way can modern man develop a personahty flexible and strong
enough to cope with the complex requirements of a rapidly
changing world.

NOTES

1 . Hr. \h)ntcssori ujs speaking to a congress organized by the Dutch
brnnch of t lie New Kd neat ion h'cllowship, the Instihite of Child Care and
Fd;ii !ti{)ii, iind the Dutch \h>ntessori Society in Utrexht. lier topic was
hv Kainily,"

Z. Maria Montessori, Aan de basis \an het (even {Bussuni, Nether-
lands: \'au Holkenia en Warendorf. 19-49), p. 86.

V See A. A. Sci)n eiders. Personality Development and Adjustment in
Adolescence ; \hlwaukee, \\'is\: Bruce. 1960).

I. M. Yt. \!ontessori, "Gedrngsniotivatie hi) de opgroeiende mens," a
paper read to the principals and lecturers of tlic Montessori lycea, 'I'he
Hague. February 2S, 1964.

^. A very lucid exposition of the psychoanalytic viewpoint on
assessments of devchipnient is given by Anna Freud in Normality and
Pc^thology in Childhood: Assessments of Development (New York: Interna-
tional Universities Press, 1966).

6. See note 1 above.

7, Jac(|ues Bar/.un, The U(mse of Intellect (New ^*ork: Harper
Brothers, 19=59),

S. C. Khickhohn. Mirror for Man {New York: McGraw-Hill, 19-49),

p. 1.

9. .\h M. Montessori. Some Remarks on the Anthropology of
Montessori Education (Aiiistertiani: A.M.!. Connnunications, 1965).

10. Secv for example, Rene A. Spitz and Godfrey W. Cobliner, First

84 EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Year of Life: A Psychoanalytic Study of Normal and Deviant Develop-
ment of Object RelatioTv; (New York: International Universities Press,
1966).

7 / MONTESSORI AND
THE REVOLUTION
IN VALUES

As long ago as the i940s, Maria Moiitessori was aware of the social
crisis confronting us today. Slie described in powerful language
hnnian helplessness in the face of the forces of progress. Man
himself, she wrote, had nnchained these forces by liis own creative
action, but he had not been able to keep pace with them in terms
of adaptation and development. Ihere was "a lack of balance
between man and his environment from which humanity nnist
dehver itself by strengthening its own resources, developing its own
values, healing its own madness, and becoming conscious of its own
power/* ^

Little has been done, as yet, to correct this imbalance. On the
contrary, not only does the situation seem to have deteriorated, but
predictions for the near future are not at all reassuring. Professor
Zbigniew Br/ezinski of Columbia University foresees, for example,

A society culturally, psychologically, socially, and economically
shaped by the impact of technology and electronics, with computers
able to produce "creative" thought and, if wedded to robots, human-
like action.

Hnniah-conduct itself being increasingly subjected to deliberate
"progrannning,** extensive chemical mind control and [a] loss of
individuality.

8=5

KDl ( AHON 1()K Hl'MAN nKVlU.OPMKM

Atomi/cd suciiil life, iucrcii singly purposclfss nuisscs in iin uimisc-
niciit focused society, [aiulj actiu* v^ork being the priviicgc of the
governiiig uientocnihc elite.-

Hr/c/.iiiski is uw^rc of the potcntiiil dangers of siicli a world.
However, he also snsjgests that the caj^acity of government to assert
social and political control over the individual will vastly increase
and that this in its turn may encourage a technocratic dictatorship
in the next several decades. 1 Fe points Out several factors that allow
at least some optimisni about such a societv 's capacity to meet the
challenge of the future.

F his ho])e, however, is diluted by his concluding remarks on the
impact confrontation with a new technctronie society will probably
have on the world at large. Some local wars nuiy occur, he argues,
resulting perhaps in the total unclear destruction of one or several
smaller nations before the uinversal luoral shock generated by the
destruction results in t!ie nnjjosition of greater international
controls.

'F'he jjossihdity of avoiding this catastrophe seems to him
reiuote. The instantaneous character of the electronic iutcrmeshing
(if mankind will create intense confrontations that will strain sociai
and international ])eacc. The resulting trauma may create eutirciv
different perspectives on life, with insecurity, envy, and hostilitv
becoming the dominant emotions of increasingly large innnbcrs of
people. Br/ezinski mentions in this connecticni a tlirecAvay split
into rural-backward, urban-indnstrial, and teclmetronic ways of life.
Such a restructuring of society would further divide man, and
increase the oj)stacles to global understanding. 1 le also remarks that
the rest of the wodd can learn what is in store for it by observing
what happens in the United States— not a very reassuring prospect.

I would like to point out a fourth disruptive factor if the
developments Br/e/inski foresees take place. He mentions as one of
the positive features of the teehnetromc age the expansion of
knowledge and the entry into sociopolitical life of the intellectual
eonnnnnitv. fn the United States, though many uH)an dwellers
may he college trained, only a minority of them will behmg to the
privileged meritocratic elite. The nuijority will form part of the
purposeless masses described earlier, vvjio enjoy a longer lifespan

MontL'ssori and the Reyolutioii in Values

;iikI n large aiiiount of leisure. Presumably, tlie selection of the elite
will be by computer, Tins may result in a subtler/ but far more
devastating, form of diseriunnutiou than tliat which eauses us so
much eouceru today. The eollegc-truincd citizens judged unfit for
adimssion into the elite will, noiietiieless, have becji taught to think
:md to act intelligently. It is hiconccivable ttiat tlicy will accept, for
long, being branded as second gnidc eiti/ens by machines. Because
they will still be hununi beings, a major revolt will probably occur,
pediaps disrupting the whole systen*.

Br/e/inski states that increasing aUentiou must be given to
improving the quality of life for man as man. It seems to me that
this is the most urgent issue of our time. The situation of man,
trapped by his environment, can be described by the following
metaphor: Cod created man in l\h i!n;»ge, and man created
machines in his image. The machines are now reshaping man. and
Cod has been declared dead. The guiding and unifying principle in
human existence has been eliminated. The individual is being
deprived of his share in shaping his personal destiny. His life is
being determined, more and more, by impersonal institr tious and
teclmologieal devices that keep him in bondage. Meaning and
identity are being lost in the process. Anxiety and a growing feeling
of disorientation, I'utility. helplessness, and frustration are taking
over. In the circumstances, revolt is the only way the individual can
reeo\ er his rights as a man.

\V*e must keep in mind that when s\v speak of revolutions,
whether they involve technology, social values, or political ide-
ologies, we are always speaking of man and bis behavior. I will
clarify this point later. It is important (o remcudjcr here that
whatever conception of inner or outer reality we have, whatever
vahies vvc possess or whatever meaning we attach to life, we are
always c^-aliug with psychic entities, and hence with subjective
propensities. No matter how "objective" the outcome of a situa-
tion may seem to be, the human personality is involved.

However, because the educational and scientific establishment
has mistakenly concluded that it is dealing with an objective
situation, it has cultivated in its students only those faculties that
have an objective purpose, leaving the development of tlic other
aspects of the personality in abeyance. Technological progress has

KDUC.VnON till MAN OKVKr.OPMKN 1

contributed this pragn» itic om-sidcd approadi to education,
demanding increasing speciaJi/.ation, and hence an increasing
fragmentation of knowledge. At the same time,, its very extent is
sliaking tlie basis of siuence. modern man s last hope of security.

Actually, man should find 'jecuritv witinn liimsel^, but he has
received no aid in developing his own resources to this end. Reason
having failed as a source of st;ibility, the exacting conformity
required by modern technology becomes an insufferable and
senseless burden, tolerated only for the material profit and social
status it offers, xMany cannot stand the strain and want to throw all
rules and legulations overboiird. They indulge in irrational ways of
life, in which subjective feelings are the only tilings t!»at count.

It is not accidental that the human sciences have developed so
rapidly. Paradoxically, they have helped to increase our confusion.
Having been modeled on the natural sciences and niathem^jtics,
they have adopted their perspectives and methoc^s. They conceive
of man as a machine, thereby serving the very system from which he
is trying to escape. And to what avail? As Godfrey Cobliner pifits it,
"I'Vom the worship of authority we have shifted to the worship of
the collectivity. Instead of acquiring diversity, we have drifted into
conformity/* ^ It becomes more and more difficult for modern, Uiian
to find appropriate criteria to evaluate behavior. Standards tend to
be considered more as styles that are "in" iii certain groups and
rejected in others, and have no special validity per se. What seems
iiKXSt doiiiiiiaiit is coiifusion-particularly in the realm of values.

In view of this, it is my opinion that one cannot speak of
revolution in this connection. Revolution implies having uew^
values for which old ones must make way. We are far from this yet.
There is no doubt that the rapid environmental changes of which
we liave spoken, with tlieir emphasis on the material aspects of
human existence, h we their impact on our value system. However,
environmental influences are only one side of the coin. Values are
the result of an intricate process of development of the individual
personality, by which interactions with/the outer world are replacied

by inner repr usentations. - - >

This process of internalization~of which the maturation of
early ego functions is a precondition-has different stages. It starts
wjtii imitation, identification, and introjectioii with regard to the

100

Muntc^sori and the Revolution in Values

attitudes of j)arcnts and otlicr sigi>ificant persons in tlic child's
environment. Ft culminates in the individual's views, ideals, and
standards, as evidenced by his behavior and bis role in tiic society in
which he lives;' This is what is mulerstood by bis ego identity. It is
nsnally considered to he acljicved deveIoj)mentally dnring the
nornuitivc crisis of adolescence. However, if the environment is
suitably benign, the maturation of specific ego functions con-
tinues to occur in the normal individual well into adidt life. It is
evidenced by a steadily increasing capacity to love, to work, and to
adapt to the world.

This does not happen in circtnnstances that cause anxiety.
Cienerally speaking, wliat we see then is a backward movement, or
regression, to more primitive and infantile emotional responses.
Anna Freud remarks that the normal citi/.en does not iriternalize
the law as snch. Rather, liis attitude toward it perpetnali/.es "the
infantile position of an ignorant and com]3liant child, faced by
parents who arc onmiscient and onmipotent. The delinquent or
criminal perpejtuates tlic attitude of the child who ignores, or
belittles, or disregards parental authorih', a/nd acts in defiance of
it."-'* The same phenomenon can occur wiJfh regard to the social
system as a whole when it is too cvoercive. In n)y opinion', this is also
the cause of the existing confusiou in vahies. W hen freedom is
confused witli license.*' adaptation with conf'ormism. " discipline
with submissiveness."' indeiJcndence with antiantboritarianism,-^
ec|Tiality witli uniformity, and so forth, we are dealing with an
infantile attitude to the social system, ft liad its begiiniings in the
child's reaction to an omnipotent and.. I may add, intolerant
parent. Jt is clear that those who harbor these misconceptions will
also he motivated by them.

More speeifie value distortions are those related to primitive
dcfen5: mechanisms, activated by the regressive phenomenon
menti'.Mied above. These can be sccm. for example, in a ligid
adherence to a specific value systeni maintained by denying tFiose
aspects of reahty that cause anxiety, guilt, or pain. This rigidity is
generally compensated for by a fantasy of vjumipotence.

In still another form of value distortion, those aspects of reality
that arc felt to be the most disruptive elements of the govennng
social system are adopted as personal values to be adhered to and

pr()p;ig;itcJ with the clctcrniiii:ition of a crusader, This is ijcliic\'cd
l)y a combiiuition of priiniti\'c defense niechiniism.^V W'e then see,
for cxiiniple, cliangc being considered a guidiittg principle in its own
rigltt, I''.\ery tiling fimist be continuously changed whether it makes
sense or not. In fact, of course, change is a neutral concept. It can
lead equally to inipro\ einents or to disasters, The same can be said
of sjK'cd, research,, teclmicjnes. systems, jjrocednrcs. action; all these
and many more sinnlar means are dissociated from the aims they
should seir\e. Thc) are jjroinoted to the stiitns of autonomous
\alues. and thereby lose their purpose. Consider the rage for
inno\atioi». How well we are all acquainted with it!

This brings us to the conflict between generations. The
follow ing obsen ations gi\ e the gist of the situation:

An excessive desire for liberty at the expense of everything else is
what undcfinints deniccraty and lends to the deiDiind of tyrinniy . , .
it uili penneate private life . . . ii becomes the tiling for f;ither and
son to change places, the fafilier standing in awe of his son. and the
son neitlit'f respecting nor fearing his parents, in order to assert his
independence. , . . The teacher fears and panders to his pupils, who
in turn despise their teacliers and attendants: ;nid tlie young as a
wlic-le iniitiite tlicir elders, iiitjue with them and set thenwelves
;igainst them, while their elders try to avoid the reputation of being
disiigreeiible (ir strict by apii.j; the young inid mixing with tliein on
terms of easy good fellowship. ^-

These words could easily apply to certain aspects of today's
social turbnlcMce. 'F1iey were, however, written by Plato sonic four
centuries before the birth of Christ. I do not quote him with the
intention of downgrading the present problems between genera-
tions, but to put them in the right perspective— to show that
altliougb times, conditions, and interpretations change, there is
something basic determining human behavior that does not. I will
come back to this point later.

A better understanding of modern youth and its problems calls
for a consideration of some general points. First of all, we should
acknowledge the fact that the impact of Workl War il on those of
us who were young at the time was nmcii more profound and
distur!i)ing than we generally care to adnut, ft undoubtedly bad

\02

Montcssori and the Raolution iJi Values

repercussions on tlic vmy we bronglit up our children. Often,
co\ering our insecurity as cducatorii by calling ourselves nioclern or
progressive, we gnvc them ii more permissive education than ue
rceei\ed. More often tiaun not, we neglected our true responsibility
in respect to what 1 hunmah Arendt calls the double aspect of
childhood: tliat of beiug i^ewcoiuers in a strange world and
unfinished beings in the process of bccomtngj-* We offered tlicni
more material advantjges tluit allowed tbeiu to enter the adult
world earJier. but we did not gi\e tlicm ii meauingfiil perspeeti\'e on
it. 'I heir most direct prcparatmn for the world at large was the
kaleidoscopic explosioti of images by which television brings its
inconsisteiicies houfc to us. The poet AvK. nousnian describes well
what the >onng must feel on encountering tlie adult world:

1, u stf:niger and afraid.
Ill a world 1 never nudc.^*

A second thing we must consider is that when we speak of
voutl.v or the younger generation, we are making a single entity of
something- that is not- Tiie only tiling young people have in
connnon. and that only within a broad margin that should be
specified in talking abont them, is their position in the continuum
of human life from birth to death. That we can talk about such an
abstraction as youth at all is evidence that there is an intrinsic
pattern determining human development. It manifests itself in a
specific way and gi\*es a special quality to the behavior of a group of
peers. Jhmcver, the individuals in that peer group differ, as all
hunnaij beings do. Fu5;tIierinore, individuals ca*! vuily be considered
in relation to all other mendjers of the couHiumities in which they
grow and live, and to the environ n j en t at large.

Now, the great majority of modern youth neither rebels against
society, nor withdraws from it. I'hcy do look at it criticilly and
realistically, with a great deal of insight and understar;ding. In
addition, what they demand from adults is fully reasonable. They
wish, to he treated as fellow huuian beings in their own uglit. It is in
this sense that they request equality. They know very well that they
lack experience, and they arc willing to learn: but they do not want
to take things for granted. They want to participate in what goes on

103

KIvt'CATION KOK HUMAN ^^:^'t:^()l>^t^:^'T

and. lit tlic very least, be iiiforincd of the motives behind decisions
that influence their existence. Tliey :ire all too aware that they will
presently have to find tlteir place and function independently in a
world of which the>- know themselves to he citi/.fns. but which
appears, on the surface at least, to be a thorougl.ly chaotic place.
They arc iiot prepared to accept any of the roles they are ofTered by
society uncritically. In addition, they will keep their inner reserve
imti! they are quire sure of their choice. Any genuine help their
elders can give ?iiem h\ tliis connection will be sincerely
appreciated.

lliis is why we do great injustice to our children w hvu we speak
of them as part of "modern yonMi" instead of as individual hununi
heii^gs, especially if we ideiitify them a priori with one of the
minorities that receive attention bepuise they happen to be in
conflict with society. \Vc then force them to assume that role,
whether we are conscious of it or not. hi facCrcDemon against or
'.vithdrawiil from society is f;xtre«nc reaction that occurs only
when circumstances cause intclerable tensions in interpersonal
relationships, ft occurs, for example, where a pocket of poverty
exists in an otherwise affluent society, where housing problems
preclude a livable enviroiniient, where a minority is discriminated
against for some reason, or in the case of stndei»^s. where the
situation is complicated by a system that is the most conservative
ever to exist, and which by tradition requires that one endure
wilHngly.

Of course, in these cases a typological generalization of youth
also does a further injustice to the individuals concerned. Not only
does it highlight only one side of the picture, but it ignores the fact
that there are great differences in individual motivations, which
may range from sincere convictions and a wish for a more livable
conmmnitv to pure destnictiveness.

How 'ever, because of their damaging effect, some general
behavior patterns should be considered that ^ead to the phe-
nomenon generally called the generation gap. When young people
have gemiine grievances that are not taken seriously by the
autliorities, they protest; they seek .support from others in similar
circumstances.

Pearl King, in a study of racial prejudice, describes aptly what

10 i

MoiitcssoTi and the RcYolutinu in VmIuk's

9'.

Iiiippens ncxt,^'* Wlicn im iiuIividiKiI starts to bcliavc contrary to
OJv; expectations, it gent.'riilly jrouscs unconscious anxiety, aggres-
sion, and guilt feelings. As a result, we teiid to categorize actions as
typical of an existing stereotype sucli v.s "youth,'* "the poor," or
"blacks." Stereotyped beliefs develop that are niistakeTi:, an whole or
in part, fur establislied facts,

'riie person against whom this type of prejudice is directed has
no way of esc^ijje. The resulting stress IciUls to a regression to more
primitive forms of social and interpersona} behavior. When indi-
viduals function even partly in this way, they begin to treat others
as inanimate objects devoid of lunium feehngs, The span of time
over wivicli they feel responsibility for theif actions shrinb, so that
the consequences are felt to be the responsibility of others.
Morality deteriorates to the law of /l'alion: Who does not agree is
an enemy. Their world and their relationships are experienced in
terms of opposites: as all black or all white, all good or all bad. They
desperately need a person or group to blame as theToiTrec of every
discomfort and evil in order to maintain some degree of psychic
eCjuilibriniii. Tiieir chief defenses or methods of acUiptation arc
projection, splitting, and denial. They create stereotyped images
onto which they can project all those aspects of themselves that are
not congruent with their preferred elf-image. Such stereotyped
images can be connnunicated quickly dirough normal connnunica-
tion channels and, with the aid of modern propaganda leehnicjues,
can rapidly become widespread.

King's remarks shed a great deal of light on the processes under-
lying what is commonly called the generation gap. These processes
are operative among both the young and the representatives of the
establishment. Tliey reinforce the initial distrust and hostility
between the two, thus precluding the possibility of a genuine
dialogue.

This is a complex picture, but such is the human situation.
What can we deduce from it? One thing is certainly clear. FVom
whatever angle we look at it, we are always brought back to the
individual human being, his development, and his behavior, Th\$
appears to be the basic issue, to which all others are related. We
cannot avoid the fact, either, that the transition to a postindustrial
society is creating a serious human crisis that could easily get out of

i 0 0

KiniCAl ION rOK human OKVKr.OPMKNT

Ikiii^'- Clearly, nil tlioso wiio iuive clioscn as their profession tlie
Ntu^'y Or giiidaiicc of iunnan !)cings must coordinate tiicir efforts to
acli'^*^'^' systematically planned oi)jectives. Only in tins way can liicy
licip reduce tiic existing confusion regarding values, and to
rear "'U wltir regard to iiis position and role in handling his
affaif^-

iuive called for concerted action based on a firm common
i)od> of J;n()\vledgc concerning man and his hciiavior, \Vc have
disci^^^ed tiic proi)len>s involved. Tiie realm of science is not any
freer ffoui prcjndiees. strnggies. and contradictions than any otiier
sectt>^ of innnaii activity. Tiie situation is particularly confused
vviicJ^ study man i)ecause of iiis co^npicxity. on the one hand,
and ^"'"i great sni))ectivity on tiie other. Tiie eoiui)inatioii of tiiese
two ^''^'tors ofteu leads to oversiiU|)lification. If luodcru science has
t'Uig^^*^ Us anything, it is that truth is eln^ij^v and that no one
aj)pr«ik'lj lends to it. Tiic i)est we cau do is converge on it from
severed Perspectives.

^'le iniiiiau sciences, tiiis is only possii)le if a consensus can he
read^^'d q,, general scheme. This sciieme should serve as a matrix
for i^^*^^'grating tiie findings oi)taincd i)y different approaches, ft
siioiil^l iiiehide and explain all aspects of man's develo|jment, iiis
i)eiiUVU)r .,j,^i reiatidns to otiiers and to his environment at large
as tl^^'v really are. Tiiis means tiiat a coherent network of
propositijjjjjj coueeruing tiie iiuiium personality as an entity must he
constfUctL.d

f latter can he seen as evolving in interaction with the
envir^^'Mjit'iit. passing through distinct stages of development and
ieadi^'S to ever more complex indiavior. Tiiis conception acknowh
edgc^^ tile conii)lexity of the iiuniau i)eiiig and iiis i)eiiavior in
diffc^'^'^U situations and cultures, i iirough such a conception, the
findi^^S^ of jll tiiose studying iiis i)ciuivior from different approaches
can ^'oordinated into n conipreiiensive picture that will fit tiie
retpW^^'nients of scii:)'.ce: It is tiie only conception onnan tiiat can
he of '-Uiy real i)elp in finding adccpiate solutions for tiie social
()roi)l^*|^ls we iiavc i)een discussing.

'J ^^^^ concept is of particular importance in connection with
cdiicJi^H^o. One of the most persistent |)rejndices in tiie realm of
iuinu^" •'Sciences is that against tiie ciiild. Its fimdamental function
in th*^' ^^iri nation of man continues to go nnrecogiii/.ed. although

lOo

Montcssori and the Resolution in Valua;

Maria Montfssori l)cgan discussing licr discoveries in tliis field iii
1912, Her observations of tlic child revealed tliat cliaraeterisl'ics
related to tlie value system were developed through spontajicoiis
activity in a prepared environment, /vdults nnist help the ciiilci to
function freely in this environment. This help corresponds io the
intrinsic needs inherent to the pattern of dcvelopnvjnt, and {ollo\vi>
his own tempo, Nlontessori denionstrai'ed that under these cond'*
tions the child is urged from within towards certain Jipccific
activities which he performs with great concentration, and jay.
'I'iiese activities are linked to the inner formation of functions that
ouK' later are integrated and ajjpcar as manifest characteri.stics.

'ITie goal of Montessori education is the formation of the child's
whole personality. In the beginning, the child works mainly
independently, Init it ob.serves wliat others around it do, especially
the older children. Presently, it starts to collaborate v^itli others.
'I'he older children p::'^icipate in the activities of younger ones and
help them in a natural way that both enjoy. Instead of competitive-
ness, there is cooperation. This enhances tli. children's feeling of
security and stimulates them to further exploration of their world.
Respect for otiiers and for the environment comes as a natural
byproduct of the freedom within a conun unity they experience.

it is interesting to note that several of the cliar;ictcristics so
often exhibited in Montessori schools are considered basic to
human welfare and development by social scientists. In a list of
properties of biosocial and sociocultural systems, Eric I'rist men-
tions self-regulation, integration, independence, interdependence,
coordination, and cu operation as ba.sic to welfare and maturation,
learning extended adaptability, the accunnd;ifion of culture, and
expansion of the enviroinnent.**' Because these are all properties
that are explicitly encouraged by Montessori eraicntion, it certainly
deserves serious consideration in the search for the best means to
prepare tomorrow's citizens. As Montessori wrote in her last book.

One of die most iirgt;»U endeavors to bo undertaken on bclialf of the
rcconstr net ion of .^^cicty is tlic reconstruction of education [to
awaken] those marvellous powers which today remain hidden. ...
'I'hen there will appear tlie child who is destined to form a humanity
capable of inulerstaiiding and contiolliiig our present civilization.

lu7

KhUCA l lON FOR HUMAN Kl.OPMKN l"

NOTES

1. M;iriii Montcssori. The Formatiun of Man (Adviir. India: Ka-
lakshctra. 19S5).

2. Zbignicw Br/.eziii.ski. "America in tlic 'rcclinctroiiic Age." En-
counter (January 1968). pp. 16-26,

Godfrey Coblincr, quoted in Rene A. Spitz. The First Year of Life
(New York: International Universities Press. 1965). app.. p. ^65.

4, Vor a detailed exposition of this intricate process of development,
see Anna Freud. Nonnality and Pathology in Childhood (New York:
International Universities Press, 1966). pp. 170-S4.

X Ibid., p. 18^.

6. See F. J. }, Buytendi)k. Experienced Freedom and Moral Freedom
in the Child's Conscience (Amsterdam: A.M.I. Connnunications. 196^).

7. See Jeanne Lauipl-deGroot. **Some Thouglits on Adaptation and
Conformisni," a psyclioaiialytie study distiugui.sliing between adaptive and
conforming behavior, in R. M. Loewcustein et aL. eds.. Psychoanalysis— A
General Psychology (New- York: International Universities Press. 1966).

8. See Aldous Muxley, Ends and Means (New York: Harper &
Brothers. 1937). pp. 200f.. in which he quotes Maria Moutessori on this
sub)ect and discusses the coexistence of education for freedom and
responsibility and education for bullying and subordination in Western
democracies.

9. See Hannal) Arendt, Betweeri Past and Future (New York:
Meridian Books, 196?). pp. 190f.

10. Ibid., p. 180.

1 1. For a better understanding of these meeiiauisnis. sec Anna Freud,
The Ego and the Mechanisnis of Defense, rev. ed. (New '^'ork: Intcrna-
tiortal Universities Press. 1967).

12. Plato. The Republic, trans. II. D. P. Lee (Ilaruioudswortli:
Penguin Book5, 1968), pp. 335-36.

i? l iannah Arendt, "The Crisis in Education." in Betw^een Past and
Future (New York: Meridian Books. 1961). pp. 173-97.

14. A E. Housman, Last Poems (Chester Springs. Pa.: Dufour. 1922),

15. Pearl H. M. Kin. "Flxploriug Racial Prejudice." a public lecture
given in London. F'^cbruary 1970 (unpublished).

16. Eric L. Trist. "The Relation of Welfare and Development in the
'I'ransition to Post-Industrialism." in F. E. Emery and E.L. Trist. Towards
a Social Ecology: Contextual Appreciation of the Future in the Present
(New York: Plenum. 1970).

17. Maria Montcssori. The Formation of Man, p. 98.

108

8 / COSMIC EDUCATION

One of the most fascinating cliaracteristics of Maria Montcssori was
licr al)ility to connect life at tlic moment witli life in the distant
past. A simple task would start her sketching a panoramic vision of
man's evolution up to the present time, irresistably stinndating the
imagination of her listeners.

I remember her peeling potatoes and looking at them with
profundity, as if they could reveal some secret of great importance.
She continued her task, wondering aloud how man originally
discovered the value of the potato plant, outwardly a weed with
insignificant little flowers and producing poisonous fruit. What
made him look further? By what trick of chance did he discover
that its usefulness to him lay not in the part of it that appeared
above the surface, but in the part that was hidden in the earth?
How did he learn that this part was not poisonous, but edible?
Potato plants apparently came from the New World. How had
they come to be introduced, adopted, and cultivated throughout
Western Europe?

Tlie way she could talk about things like potatoes brought one
immediately to a higher level of thinking and view oi 'eality, while,
at the same time, one remained immersed in lium^n life. It was a
unique experience. It was connected with a special quality of her
personality and a profundity of insight fundamental to her success.

Although she may not have made the connection consciously

109

F 15 1 'CM ION lOK HUMAN DK Mil. O I'M I- NT

licrsclf. 1 l)clic\ c licr clcvclopmciit of cosmic education gTcw out of
tliis iiniisiijl ;il)iliry to connect tlic past ami the ]) resent tlirongli
iniaj^inative tliinking. As slie licrsclf has pointed out.

hiiayinativc vision is ijuitc dilTcrciU from iiier<' perception of an
ohjcct. f.)r it has no limits. Not only can imai^ination travel dir(nii;li
infinite space, hut also through infinite time; wc can go hackwards
throngli the epochs, and have tlie vision of the earth as it was. with
the cre.itnrc^ that inhalnted it. To niukc it clear wlicthcr or not a
child has nnilerstood. ue should sec whether he can form a vision of
it within the mind, whether he has gone beyond the level of mere
nnderstanding. . . . I'he secret ()f good teaching is to regard the
elnkl's iutelhgence as a fertile field in which seeils may he sown, to
grow under tlie heat ot Naming imagination. Our .lim tlierefore is not
merely to make the clnld miderstand, ;md still less to force him to
inemori/e. i)nt so to tonch his imagination as to enthuse him to his
inmost core.^

In general, we seem to make little use of our iniagi native powers
in worldh affairs. Wc are involved in a continuous cycle of chaos
that eventually evokes mto order only to lapse into chaos ouce
more. LateK' the impetus of this cycle seems to have increased. As a
residt. many of man's spiritual values are being ))reuiaturc]y
destroyed. C'lianges are so violent ami contain so much ])(jtential
for destructicni that it is qncstionahle whether we will find the
wisdom within ourselves to rediicct the situation so that we move
toward a more constructive future.

What impresses me most in reviewing the social situation is that
we go randoudy from tnie extreme to the other. Our attitude
towiird pollution is a good example. People had been talking about
tlie dangers of pollution for decades. Nobody listened: Suddenly
the message vvas heard; ev eryone becanu' aware of poisons in the air
and threats to wildlife. Something had to be done, and cpiick!
Everyone demanded an iuunediate solution to the problem. Of
course, this vvas not p()ssible. Some short range measures were taken
to sto]) the shouting. 'These bad other consequences as destructive
as the initial pollution.

In reviewing history, it does not appear that political systems in
tlieuiselves are the answer to human problems. Rather, solutions
.seem to depend on cert iin human beings who happen to be in

110

Costnic Education

positions of rcspoiisihility. on tlicir personalities nnd tlicir vision, or
lack of it. Others, sometimes silent and -ometimes sliouting, merely
follow their lead. The individual persoii;ility must develop the
incJependenee and maturity needed to see the present situation
clearly and to visualize the future. It will then be possible to
consider the direction we are going and how to influence matters so
that we, with our powers of adaptability, our intelligence, and our
creativity, can find a constructive way to liandle our world, a world
which in itself is a beautiful place to live and which could be much
more agreeable than it happens to be at the moment. This kind of
indejjendenee and maturity/ however, seems to be scarce.

I believe that Montessori education aids the development of
these qualities and, in this sense, provides a more realistic basis for
hope for the future. This is most readily apparent when one
examines Montessori's concept of cosmic education. There are
three separate aspects of this conception that .should be considered
in this regard- The first is the underlying conception of man and
humau development, particularly between six and fourteen vears of
age. The second is the role of education and how to find the
appropriate way to help the children of this particular age group
develop as they should. The third is the practical techniques to be
used in the schools, the didactic aspect. As I am not a teacher, I
shall limit my remarks io t!:e first two aspects.

Recently \ chanced to see a television documentary on tlie life
cycle of the pink salmon. Ft was a report of one of Captain Jacques-
Vves Cousteau's experiments with Ins oceanographic research vessel
Calypso. Vhc site was a lake in Ah'.ska that had once contained a
great quai;>tity of pink salmon. However, salmon factories had been
built around it. and eventuallv Ibc salmon had been externiinated.
l*he .site had then been abandoned: What Coiisteau had done was
to place fertilized pink salmon eggs in this environment that had
originally proved so propitious for harboring their kind.

The eggs, wliich had been fertilized in quite a different location,
were brought in containers to the lake and left there to hatch. As a
lesvilt, a new cycle of sabnon life was started. The yoimg salmon
eventually went down to the open sea, where they remained for
four to five years, and then returned to the lake where thev had
been hatched.

When one stops to think of it, it is very curious that these fish

ill

100

KDUCATION FOR nUN!AN DEVKLOPMKNT

were prompted by an inner urge to abandon a rich ;nid calm
environment of sweet water to go down a tnrbulent river to the .sen.
to iidapt to ;i salt-water environment, to re'^iain there for ye;irs. mid
then, eventually, to come back-aK if directed by some hidden
device-to the spot where they were born. To return, they had,
once agnin. to undergo a physiological adaptation tin's time from
sali-water life b;ick to that of sweet w;iter. 1o do tins, they had to
live for some time in the area where the river entered the sea. until
this readjustment had been completed. Then they started the
laborious journey up the stream. Many of the fish died in the
process, dasliing themselves against rocks or jumping too far from
the river bed. All kinds of animals inhabited the shores of the river,
feeding off the fish. Thus the environment was kept clean of
decaying bodies. However, the majority of salmon remained alive.
At a certain stage of the trip, the males chose mates, and fought off
other males, llie couples thus formed continued upstream to the
lake, where the eggs were laid and fertilized. Soon after, the adult
fish died and their bodies decomposed very quickly. The lake
became a true cemetery of salmon, their decomposed bodies
providing plankton for the iie.xt generation of salmon to feed on
When this next generation is grown, it too will travel seaward, and
the life cycle of the salmon will continue.

Wlial can we learn from this captivating story? First of all, it
teaches an ecological lesson: the interrelation between different
aspects of the natural environment. Second, it shows the very close
relationsliiop between living beings and their environment: their
adaptation to its more rigid features and their contribution to
maintaining the conditions necessary for the existence of their
species. The latter is what Maria Montessori calls the cosmic task.

Her ultimate explanation of this task as a finality, intended by
creation to maintain thi cosnic order in nature, belongs to her
personal philosophy and not be accepted by all. But the

phenomena to which she alludes in explaining it are observable and
belong to the natural order of things. Today this is referred to as
tile natural eqnilibrinin. Scientists remained blind to it for a long
time, considering those few who pointed it out eccentrics.

One final thing we can learn from the history of Captain
Cou.stcairs salmon is the difference in the instincts of animals and

112

Cosmic Education

10)

men, as well as the special position of the latter in the cosmos. Let
me explain these different aspects belonging to the cosmic or
natural order in contradistinction to tiie social order.

I shall not expand on the general interrelation of all tiic
components of the natural environment, which would hring us too
far afield. We know, however, that the original movements of the
surface of ou: planet left recesses that retain fresh water produced
by the cycle of evaporation and the condensation in the at-
mosphere. The resulting lakes divided into streams or rivers flowing
toward the sea, .creating a special environment for certain animals
such as the pink salmon. By what whim of nature we do not know,
but through slcnv* changes in the interaction of this species and its
environment, a detailed pattern of behavior becanu: hereditary.
W'e could call vvhat happened a programming, covering in this case
a period of some fixe years and comprising such contrasting
elements that they seem to the superficial observei io be unnatural.
One would expect that, once accustomed to sweet water, these
animals would find any other environment unpleasant and hence to
be avoided. But this is not what happens. On the contrary, they
find an area where sweet water from the river and salt watei from
the sea meet and patiently remain there, slowly adapting to the
nev. condition. 1'hey then go off in schools, seenn'ngly forgetting
their place of origin. They may wander quite far, finding new
depths and meeting new dangers, yet feeling at home in their new
environment. Wiiat happens then is quite incomprehensible, yet
happen it does, with computerized precision.

The different schools of salmon, all of a sudden, and more or
less at the same time, change their course toward their place of
origin, lliey again remain in an estuary for the time necessary to
readjust to sweet water, and then start their dramatic trip against
tlie current to the protected environment in which they were boru
to lay their eggs. Their life cycle then completed, they die quickly,
providing the environment with the substance most necessary for
the new life to come.

The detailed way in which hereditary instinctual patterns can
structure the behavior of animals, and the precise timing involved,
is extraordinary. In humans, certaii. fundamental patterns and
sequences of development are hereditary, but individual behavior is

113

102

KDUCAIION lOii \WS\.\S nKVn.OPM KN T

shaped tlirough experience and interae..on witli the environment,
infimts can he Imnight from one environment to anotlier; they will
adapt to the environnient in wliich they grow up, '['his experience
will form them into adult mend)ers of that particular con numity.
1'hev will then act as if their hehavior was hereditary, like the
instinctual hehavior ()f the s:ilmon. Being human beings, however,
they have huilt up their hehavior patterns, through edueation and
with the aid of the other members of the connnunity.

What nuikes Montessori education so special is that its
objective is to help human beings with the enormous task of inner
construction necessary to pa.ss from childhood tn full adulthood,
lulucatioii is an essential aspect of human development. \N'e
Cwnnu)t become fully adult without it. The level of formation the
individual personality can reach depends on it.

\h)ntcss()ri education aims to further this formation of person-
ahty. It is. therefore, astonishing that so many people have the
impression that it is only meant for small children. The Montessori
approach can be a])plied from birth, and even before birtb throngli
the preparation of adults for parenthood, and Montessori educa-
tion can he continued until a child reaches maturity. In Holland,
secondary schools based on Montessori principles liave been in
existence since 1^)>I.

To return to {)ur theme, vviien a child has had the help it needs,
an integration of the personality takes place in ajjproxiniately the
sixth year. This integration maiks the end of a phase of life lived in
a protected environment, during which the child was directly
dependent on the adults responsible for taking care of it. During
this period, basic behavioral patterns and attitudes were inter-
nalized and integrated into the child's j)ersonality. At the same
time, a differentiation of sensorial experiences and an indirect
preparation for new functions began developing.

At a certain moment, the child itself wishes tc) come out of its
protective shell, and to explore the bigger world. Of course,
emergence from a protected environ n lent is relative, because it is
not yet capable of really going out and about all by itself. However,
one can notice its increasing independence from its parents, At this
stage of develo])ment. one can oljserve a growing interest in the
behavior of peers and the wish to join others in groups. In addition,
achdts other than parents are idealjAed. There is a marked tendency

111

Cosmic Education

103

to identify wiUi group lieroos uho serve as niodels. At this time, a
iicu attitude to\v;m! the world clearly begins. Cosmic e<.iv; nation
offers the kind of help that will activate the new potentiahties
consolidated at this first level of integration. I'he stage has been set
for this activation through indirect preparaticni ij an earlier phase.
All the experiences that were offered to the child previously in the
prepared environment were basic experiences, needed cither for the
formation of later functions, or as kevj to lielp it to explore and
orient itself in its world. When it reaches this second stage of
maturity, it should be given a broader view^ of that world; that is, a
vision of the whole universe.

This is a different approach fronj the one usually found in
schools. The idea, as mentioned above, is to try to awaken the
imagination of the child, to give it a vision of the order of things.
The iimer orcler of the personality must be constructed through
experiences in a structured world. Thus the child nuist have a
coherent picture, on the broadest scale ]K)ssible, of the ambience in
which he is growing. Chaos will never stinnilatc it to real
participation.

Imier order is necessary to l)e able to see meaning in one's
existence, to find one's identity, to achieve independence, and to
act in a meaningful way. Interest in special details is never activated
without a prior interest in the whole. Generally, in elementary
education one finds an endeavor to teach facts as clearly as possible,
starting with the most simple and eleni'; ?i»V;jv and preceding to the
more com j) lex and abstract. The student.. ■^:;:'J this boring and must
force tbemsdvcs to learn by an act of will. To arouse their jiterest,
they Piust first he shown the interrelation of Hiings in the world—
the ditTerent aspects of knowlcdg*? that can be studied, how they
relate to each other or how they have come about. -

One way to give children the global view of the universe they
need is by introducing the ecological principle in education. The
interrelation of living and nonliving things can be considered— what
plants, for example, need from the earth to be able to grow, what
special functions they have with regard to carbon dioxide, oxygen,
water, and .so on. Or the story of the pink salmon can be told in an
interesting way that appeals to the imagination of the listeners.
Different aspects of their life cycle can be introduced that arouse
curiosity and that subsequently can be studied in 'letail bv the

115

i(H KnuavnoN for human dkvki.oi'mknt

cliildrcn. Tliey will do this with pleasure, beciiiise one of the normal
traits of a happy human being is its desire to use its intdligence and
endlciis curiosity to know, to explore, and to diccovcr new things or
new ways to use familiar things.

It is to this trait that education inn^t appeal. Learning should
not be an effort for children, a burden, or a tedious duty performed
for the sake of the approval of someone in authority. On the
contrary, it should result from a personal interest and involvement
in the world, and an understanding of the meaning of things.
When it does, a child is able to orient itself with regard to society,
to the history of man, and to the future If children are under six,
history, for instance, can be taught in a way that helps them to
determine their own identity by knowing how others lived in the
past and in other cultures. However, what interests older children
far more is a broader view of man: when he appeared on earth and
how he evolved through tlie centuries. The idea then is to give a
dynamic global view of how lunnau life on earth has evolved,
eventually forun'ng what Maria Montessori called the "Supra
Nature."

Children at this stage are fas^cinated because this story concerns
them personally. They are begimiing to be aware of their own
situation as developing human beings. It also makes them conscious
in a natural way of the difference between man a id other living
beings. There is an interrelationship between botli and the
environment. This interrelationship is evident in what Maria
Montessori referred to as the cosmic task—the service that nuist be
rendered by the individuals of each species to the environment on
which they are dependent for their existence to maintain it in such
a way that it will support their descendents, generation after

generation Some - do this through their death, like - the salmon

whose decaying bodies provide plankton for their young. Others do
it during their lifespan. Bees, for example, need flowers so that they
can gather nectar ^o make honey. One might call this their main
concern, if one could credit them with consciousness. During this
process they inadvertently fertilize the flowers they visit by carrying
pollen from one to another on their hairy legs. In this way they not
only make use of the environment, but they preserve and cultivate
that part of it which is needed for the survival of their species.

116

Costnic Education

Nhnrs intcrrcliitioiisliip with tlic eiivironiiiciit is difiFcreiit,
however, l ie is :ni agent of cliaiigc. I le does not luu e tlie same fixed
correlation witli the environment as animals, l ie has the urge not
only to adapt to the environment, but to clia;^^e it as he goes along
and as his needs and his imagi nation (or lack ot it) dictate. This is
what Maria Montes.sori called the cosmic task of man: to continue
t'lic work of creation.

Ever since his appearance on earth, man has continued chang-
ing and enriching his environment. Man lia« the power to create
fantastic new possibilities. He may travel toother planets, or totally
destroy this one. I li.s power needs gnidaiice. Bees, needing nectar,
also see to the fertilization of the local flowers. Humans, needing
salmon, fish for it in an area until it i.s exterminated, and then go
elsewhere. It would havr hcen quite easy to avoid destroying all the
saluion in the Alaskair lake described earlier. And it would have
been in the fisheries* in .erest to have done^iO. However, the vision
for such long-range pl uming was lacking. Man docs not luvve
inbuilt progrannning, as does the salmon. He nni.st program
himself, tlnough cou.scious effort. It is obvious today that man
desperately needs the intelligence to use his power to change things
constructively. This is his only hope, if he is to maintain his self-
made environment in a condition that may permit lunnan life to
evolve toward a dignified existence for everyone. This can only be
achieved with the aid of edncatioii

It is important, then, realize that the real aim of Montessori
education is not the imparting of knowledge for the sake of
learning itself. Rather, it encourages learning because learning is a
feature of human development, a need that cannot be met without
education. Consequently, it is first necessary to study human
development and to gain...insight .intvO-^the special -needs of the -
growing individual in different phases of his life.

By special needs I do not mean what John, or Mary, or another
child wishes at a particular moment, but the inner needs that guide
the development of the individual personality. An adult who wants
to help growing individuals with 'this great task of construction
must understand the nuiltiplicity of factors determining human
behavior and their relationship to the developmental profile of
human life.

117

106

llistOTicully, the complexity of tin's process hns not really been
taken into coi'':^.ieraiion in connection with edncation, [.atdy,
however, .its relevance is becoming mortr- and more mulerstom!,
particnlarly at Ivigher levels of edncation. Universities and high
schools are begiiniing t(i nuilerstnicl how nuidi tlie effectiveness of
their work depends on what their stndents Isjave been able to
achieve within tlieni selves during the preceding period, Tiiere is
more iniderstancling of hnnian development as a continuous
process in which the individual remains the same psychosoniatie
entity while constantly ada^)ting to changes in his environment. It
is, then, not so important which facts one teaches the student,
becansre very often these facts ;ire already obsolete by \l\c time they
can l)e used, lb is njore important to help him to develop his
potentialities so that he can rely on his own ability tcrcope with the
imexpccted .and solve whatever new problems may crop up. In
other word.s,' he must be helped to feel independent in his own
world and to develop the vision that will help him as an adult to
maintaiii the environment in such a way that the unending,
creative, and gigantic cosmic task of man can continue.

The conunon intelligence we all share has, for air practical
purposes, no limits. Man can go on finding new possibilities forever.
It is to this connnon intelligence, a dynamic connnunal entity that
is created by the individual personalities forming the community,
that cosmic education is directed. The progress, or lack of it, of the
human conuni.niity is determined by the concerted action of the
individuals in it. I'f we merely react to ad hoc happenings and crises,
our progress will be poor and our actions will be shortsighted. If we
are inspired by vision and creative imagination, our progress can be
very great and our actions future oriented. Cosmic education seeks
to offer the. A'oung, ;it the appropriate sensitive period, the
stinmlation and help they need to develop their minds, their vfsion,
and their creative power, whatever the level or range of their
personal contributions may be.

NOTE

1. Maria Montcssori. To Educate the lltijnan Potential (Adyar,
I ndia: Kalakshetra, 1948). pp. H-15.

113

APPENDIX:
A MONTESSORI
CLASSROOM
Paula Polk Lillard

It is difficult to develop a feel for Moiitcssori education until it can
be experienced' as an ongoing involvement with children. The
following scenes from a Montessori classroom are presented for
those who art* nnfamiliar with the Montessori approach in action.

At eight-thirty, there are six or seven children out of a possible
twenty or so already in the room. They arc three to six years old,
bnt I am surprised at how tiny several of them seem.

I am aware first of two boys sitting opposite each other on a
small rug on tire floor. I call them A and B for convenience. There
is a basket of solid geometric shapes (wooden ones, smooth and
shiney with a bine enamel paint) between them. A is blindfolded.
He is turning one of the solids over in his hands. "You're peeking!
Can't peek!*' Says B, who is not bh'nd folded. "I feel it," says A,
rolling it carefully between his - hands. "What is it?" "Ovoid -
answers B. A takes oflF the blindfold and looks. *'Riglit," he says.
Now B takes a solid. He has apparently decided to dispense with
the blindfold and has simply closed his eyes. "Ellipsoid," he says. A,
with the blindfold still pushed up. says, "No. Sphere." "Sphere," B
repeats. A little girl who has stopped to watch says "sphere,"
prononncing the "sp" distinctly; then she moves on, watching me a
bit. B now picks up another solid. "What is it?" he asks.
"Cylinder." says A. "Okay." B takes another object. "Cone," he

119

107

lOS

FDUCA irON FOR MU.Nt VN DKVKl.OPMKNT

suggests. *»fsrQ- (.^.Ujj hij,,^ "triangular prism." Both boys arc
liaving ^1 fi„^> time. I sense no competitive feelings, but there is a
good of teaching g^^"g on as one names objects for the other.
A say5/ ' Vi make a house." I expect a switcli to dramatic play, but
A takt-^s triangular-based prism and places it on a rectangular-
based P^'^Mn. making what looks like a house with a roof. •'Oh
yeah;^ says b.

A h^^]{: girl staiKling by uie says» "See that lady in the red shirt
ijud pi^"ts i„ the hall? That's my mother." She sits down at the
table O^^t to mc, which has bells on wooden stands on two shelves,
j^lie beg^is to sound thcni with a stnall mallet, moving up and down
the scijl^'. ^^^pj. soivnds with a felt stopper similar to the
iiiallet.

I uO^^^{: the chart behind her oi) the wall at the height of "small
people^ eyes. It's an ecology chart. It says '*Save our parks. Save
Qiir bir^^^- Save our air.'' There is an attractive picture under each
siiy^ng. is quite siiHple and easy to see from a distance. It is the
Qply pri"k^d material hung on the walls of the room. In fact, I now
notice the walks of the room are largely blank. There are only
two otJ^er objects on them. One is a mural behind me which the
cliildrei^ ^lUvc made. It is of animals, plants, and birds. The other is
opposite ^^le. a montage of the .sun, earth, and stars in colored paper
sliowiug^he simple relationsliip of each to the other, also made by
the chi'^r^^n.

I look m- ^Yic room as a whole for the first time. Simplicity is its
cliief cI^'^Hieteristic. The shelves (which are low and set along the
walls) b'^^'e manv niaterials on tlicni, but thev appear uncluttered
aijd cart-'fiill

y arranged. They are obviously divided into areas: one
for mat^'^^als used in practical life exercises (mostly small baskets
cOi^*^ain>"g various materials), one for sensorial niaterials (many in-
woodeo boxes), one for academic materials, one for artistic
materiiJ^^- There are no colored tapes or marks to show the children
where t'^f different materials go. Even though they are very young,
they ob^*%sly manage to remember.

I look iihQ^ji- tiie room to see what's happening. I'm taking
jiotes, ii^^d ti,^ ]j|.|.je gij] who stopped to watch the boys with the
so^ds coniQg ^^.^j. 5^.^ ,,,y writing. She sighs, hands on hips,
sec^niing bit sleepy. Several other children are walking about, and

120

Appendix: A Montessori ClassTooiti

109

sonic ;irc working at tables. A girl watches a boy working on a
puz/.le nuij). She says, "I've got new shoes." **Oh," he rejjlies, "Who
bought tho.se shoes for you? ' She watches him for awhile and they
talk a little more.

A tiny girl takes a furry animal out of a eage, holding it jKirtly by
the neck. I feel a little concern for them both. The teacher, whom 1
have not really been aware of as yet, speaks to her. The little girl
then carries the animal carefully to the table, cradling it in her
arms. She holds it up now and then— gently for such a little child—
but I am glad the teacher has quietly sjjoken to her assistant, who
appears to be staying nearby. The animal is one I am not familiar
with— not a gerbil, hamster, or guinea pig. It washes its face with its
jxiws and wanders quietly about the table top. .After fifteen
minutes or so, the little girl carries it safely back to its cage, and !
breathe an apparently unnecessary sigh of relief.

The teacher now speaks quietly to the little girl who had
watched me earlier. The girl goes and gets a tray, chooses a metal
inset (a blue geometric shape in a red metal frame-in this case a
circle}, three colored pencils,; and a paper the same size as the
frame. She carries all this to a table and begins to trace the inset.
She talks a little to a girl working next to her. By now, she has lost
her sleepy look.

'Hiere seems to be some problem with A and B, the geometric
solid boys, who have now been joined by a girl. It .sounds like a
dispute over who is going to put away what. The teacher comes by,
listens a moment, says in a quiet manner "Decide that among
yourselves." and moves on. The girl rolls up the rug, and the boys
put the materials away. It is now nine-fiftcen.

I notice a girl next to me who is washing dishes. There arc two
large bowls,-a sponi;e, soap, and a pitcher, all c-iircfully laid out. Slie- ~
has a bright yellow apron on. She is quite involved in what she is
doing and seems to be especially enjoying the feel of the suds.

The teacher is in front of me on the floor with a little girl
working with letters. They are in a wooden frame box. The
consonants are blue, the vowels, red. The teacher seems to be
saying a word, and the girl then makes it with letters on the rug.
The little girl who had been playing with the animal comes and
stands by the teacher. "Do you need help?" the teacher asks. The

121

F.ni'CAlION FOR HUMAN OI-VHLOPMKNT

cliild is really quite young, I realize, as I sec her up close. The
teacher buttons her apron for her. The girl goes to get a basket
from the shelf, sits at a table, carefully lays out its contents, aiul
begins to polish a small mirror.

There is a boy using a button frame (a wooden fr;ime with
pieces of material that button together). 1 le repeats the buttoning
and unbuttoning process a mimber of times. It appears to be quite
easy for him, and he is in no hurry, lie looks around at what the
others are doing while he works.

Another girl is working intently with clay. She is sitting next to a
boy who is drawing a picture with watereolor pens. Me puts his
work awiiy and walks by the boy with the button frame, l ie says
something to him, and the frame is quickly put away. They make a
bit of a bux/.ing noise and rush about a little, so 1 know something
is up. I half expect them to start running around, but it turns out "
they are just excited ov^-r what they plan to do next. **Vou get the
rug," one boy says to the other. They get out a pu/zlc map of the
hemispheres. ('I'hesc are wooden pu/zle maps, carefully hand-
crafted. The edges are all smooth, and the pieces brightly painted.
Tiny knobs on the pieces make them easy to handle.) I'hcy discuss
where the pieces go. "No, no, no! Right here. Okay/'

As all this goes on, I notice that they, and in fact all the
children, are speaking in ordinary voices. There are none of the
nmted tones and whispers heard in some Montessori classrooms:
Yet, the overall .sound level is somehow not loud or obtrusive in any
way. If I had to choose one word to describe the atmosphere, I
would say ''natural," and my .second choice would be **relaxed."

1 turn back to the map boys. **I know we need this," I hear.
Then one goes to the teacher, who cuts some paper for them t!ie
size of the pu/y.le nuip. -riiey-both almost-run for colored pencils, ^
and there is some discussion of colors. "1*11 get orange, etc." Tlicy
take a bowl, return to the rug, and trace two circles the size of the
henns|)here map. One boy begins to make a map of the Western
henii.sphere by tracing pieces from the puzzle in one of the circles;
the other does the Eastern hemisphere in the other. They then
begin to color the drawings, using the same colors for the
continents as the wooden map docs.

1 sec a little girl with a block into which mo\'able cylinders fit.

122

Appendix: A Montessori Classroom

She has taken the cylinc)'*rs (which arc graduated in size) out of
their holes and placed thcni in front of the block. She drops a tiny
one and gets up to retrieve it. She seems to be watching what others
around her are doing as she works. She is at one of the individual
tables in the -rooin, but other children are nearby, some also at
tables and some on rugs on the floor.

Next to me, the little girl at the bells says aloud, but seemingly
to herself, "These bells don't seem the right way put together to
nie. Let s try them again." Two other girls come up, and they talk
for a few minutes as she continues with the bells. (There are two
sets of bells; one arranged so that the sound each bell makes
corresponds to the next note in the scale, the other arranged by the
child to match the first set.

Gradually, I become aware of another sound in the room:
"Beep, beep, beep," one boy is saying. He is at a table, and I can't
see what he is doing. A boy goes between this table and another
with a tray on which there are two porcelain pitchers. He is careful,
but the other boy is causing a minor disturbance witli his
"beeping." The boy with the pitchers sits at a farther table and
begins to pour nater from pitcher to pitcher with great care, using a
funnel. The teacher comes up to a girl next to the beeping boy and
helps her rearrange hor pencils. (She is tracing a metal inset.) She
(the teacher) then speaks to the beeping boy very quietly. I cannot
hear what she says. But the next moment he is crying, and she has
picked him up. He is resting his head on her shoulder. There is an
obvious warmth and tenderness in their relationship. The teacher
carries the boy into a small room adjoining the classroom. In a few
minutes she is back, still carrying him. They go to a tissue box. She
hands him a tissue and puts him down. He blows his nose, wipes his
eyes with his hands, goes to the small room to throw the tissue
away, and returns to his table. Whatever happened, he seems back
together again. I think once more how small he is. He must be
barely three.

Another girl is sitting at a table, folding squares of material
along sewn-in lines to make triangles, squares, and other shapes. She
works with great concentration. Next to her the girl with the
cylinders continues working and watching. The girl washing dishes
is now beginning to clean up. She brings in a bucket for the

112 EDUCATION FOR HUMAN DKVKLOPMKNT

dishwater, The assistant teacher is working with a boy with movable
letters, a different box from ll:c one used by the teacher ;nid the girl
earlier, 'lliesc letters are smaller, and she appears to be asking for
sounds, not whole words, 'fhe map boys are working away on the
floor, talking to each other at the same time. Another girt is looking
at a paperback book of reptiles.

It is now nine-thirty, and I go into another room. This time the
children are five to seven years old. They seem busy, but again lu a
relaxed and sociable fashion. I'here are several children workmg on
rugs on the floor by the door. They are making books of the
contments. I notice that the continents are the same size as those
traced bv the younger children in the first room. These youngsters
have apparently used the same map as an outline. They have
written the nanies of the continents on the book covers, which are
spread out on the rugs together with pictures to be pasted on them
representing life in each continent. The children also have hned
paper, and thev tell me they are going to write a story about each
continent for their books. Since several children seem to be working
on this same project, I ask if they are all going to do it. **Yes," say'
the girls next to me, who are busy getting snacks out of their
lunchboxes on the floor. Just then a boy comes up to the teacher
and says, ''Vm readv to do my conthient book now." That answers
my next question, \vhich is "Who chooses when to do what?"
There seems to be a good deal of eating going on at various tables.
Work is out everywhere, too, but a fair amount of it appears to
have been abandoned for the moment in favor of the snacks.

This room, I notice, is not as simple as the first room. It is far
from cluttered, but there is more on the walls. Also, the shelves go
up higher, which creates a fuller impression. Many materials are the
same ns those used by the younger children.

A child comes up to the teacher who has brought me to the
room. She hugs her. -\ can't touch you," the child tells her. "I have
gooev hands." (Cupcakes seem to be a favorite snack.) Gradually, f
notice, work is being returned to as the snacks are finished.

A boy comes up to where the group is working on the continent
maps. Me unrolls his rug, causing the pictures which one girl had
laid out to paste, to blow about. "Sorry about that, Noel," the boy
tells her. om, I'm going to punch you," she replies. But hf:r tone

124

Appendix: A Montessori Classroom

is casual. '*No\v, doift do tliaf again/' slic cautions liinu *'Look out,
you're stepping on Brian's." [He was, in fact, but barely. He was
actually trying not to.) "Too bad," he answers. **You mess
everything up," she complains, but her still-gentle tone sounds
more like flirting. "Yeah, hut you hadn't pasted yet," says Tom,
getting back to the crux of the matter. Now the girl closest to Noel
says, "You don't know how hard it is for me to sleep at night. I have
a baby brother. He sleeps right next to me." The conversation turns
casual.

The teacher shows the boy who was "ready" to start his
continent book how to go about it. They liave a hemisphere map
(like the one in the first room) on the rug, but this one has two
knobs missing. That's not ideal. That is, however, the only missing
part I notice in any equipment that morning. I think about the
amount of work involved in keeping all the materials in good
condition, and the collecting of all those pictures to be pasted,
l^ter I notice an assistant and several children cutting out pictures.
So that's how the teacher manages that, 1 think, at least for this
particular project,

I walk about. A boy is working on the stamp game. This is math
material and consists of a box of small tablets with numbers on
them. On his paper the boy has written "five plus two is seven."
The box lid says "Steven's fact box." He is still eating, and I feel
that he is not particularly happy with his work. Next to him are
several tables. At one a girl is doing decimal work with a wooden
chart. Another is working with a stamp game.

Nearby, one girl is sitting with a closed reference book in front
of her. lliinkiiig she really isn't engaged with anything at the
nioinent, and that such a reference book is a bit much for even a six
or seven year old, I ask her what she is doing. She opens the hook
promptly to a page that has a marker in it. "Oh," she .says, "we're
going to write a .stcry, and then we're going to build a tunnel of
mud up there in the front of the room and plunge a stick in it, and
rocks fly out." Needless to say, the picture in the book is of a
volcano. I'm inipres.sed with the very confident, but nice and warm,
manner in which she describes all this to me. A boy comes up to her
with some paper, for writing the story. "Oh, that's plenty," she tells
hirn.

125

114

KUrCM ION H)R IlliMAN DKVFLOPMKNT

I kiiei?! down by a table wIktc a girl is still eating licr cupcake.
"Land forms/' slic says to nie witliout being asked, lier legs swinging
back and fortli under the table. "You color tlicni in. One is named
an istlnnus." Tbere are papers with a peninsula and other land
forms outlined on them on the table. There arc also cards with
definitions on them: "A gulf is a large part of an ocean or se.j
extending. . . She has copied one of the definitions on a piece of
paper. 1 know that her first Introduction to land forms when she
was In a Montessori classroom for younger children, was through
trays m which the land forms were built up of clay and she poured
water into the open spaces— thus creating her own gulfs, peninsulas,
or whatever.

.\ boy walks by another table and a girl drops her colored
pencils. ^'I'here are as many as five children working very closely at
tuljies-i "Oh. NJaria. pick them up." one gid says to another
working with her. 1*hen. to the boy. she says "Would you get to
your work?" "We're just starting our work and now they have to
start bugging us." she tells the other girl. "Von guys are being too
nosy." she goes on. .Again, there is a teasing, flirting qualltv' to the
children's voices, as there was in the confrontation between Tom
and N(jel.

My "land form" girl now talks to me again. "Andre is doing the
same thing." she says, pointing to a boy several tables away, lie has
in fact done a lunuber of written definitions.

.•\ girl standing by a boy doing a decimal chart says. "I kiss your
mother sometimes." "Okay." he replies. "So yon appreciate
mothers."

A girl comes up to mc. "What are you writing?" she asks. "Ob.
well/* she says. "I'm doing the thousand chain." She goes back tj
the corner of the room. 1 notice there are four chains out. (TlieNe
are chains of small glass beads for counting. The thousand chain is
in bars of ten beads. There Is a chain for nines, eights, and so ou.
There are also matching cubes of a thousand, squares of a hundred,
and so on. All these are used in the counting process to show what a
thousand is, what a hundred is. and so on.) The girl begiiis to count
the beads, marking each bar with a counter and the appropriate
numeral. The particular chain she is using extends most of the
length of the room. It is on the floor on a long felt mat. A little boy

12G

Appendix: A Montessori Classroom

115

working on another chain says, '*sixt>\ sixty, sixty," as he searches for
the counter he needs. "Tin doing the longest chain/' the girl says.
"That's the easiest one!** he replies. **Yeah, easiest but the longe.st/*
she a!is\\'ers, undaunted.

One boy is practicing writing in script, and another girl is
writing spelling words. Neither has a workbook. Otherwise, the
approach to spelling seems conventional in this particular
classroom.

A girl is writing a story to go with a picture sh.e has drawn. She is
talking to the boy next to her, who is doing land forms, as she
works. Next to them is a girl writing numerals and defining them:
*'twenty-five mean.s two tens and five units....** She has no
numerical material out, but I know that she lias probably learned
these cojicepts originally from teen boards (wooden boards with
numerals on them and tablets that slide into place making a
number). These are used in conjunction with the glass bead bars.

It is time for me to leave, ai'd I slip out quietly.

Obviously, Montessori classrooms in which the children are so
plainly self-disciplined and self-motivated and the atmosphere so
filled with purposeful activity and sociability as the ones I've
described don't just happen. Considerable preparation is required
on the part of the teacher— who nmst study Montessori theory,
learn to observe children and their spontaneous development, and
develop considerable organizational skills. In addition to this
preparation, the key to success for a Montessori teacher lies in his or
her ability to understand the role of the "teacher." Montessori
herself substituted the terms '^director or directress" for teacher.
"Fliey are not often used in English translations of Montessori
literature because these terms are generally used today to refer to
administrative heads of organizations and could therefore be
misleading. However, Montessori's original idea cannot be stressed
enough: The teacher is not to teach; he or she is to guide the
child— to/)/£rn its education for it.

Teachers should gradually introduce very young children of two-
and-a-half and three years to more and more materials, extending
the range of their options from one toy or one kind of material to
one toy and two kinds of materials, and so on. Extending their

127

116

EDUCATION FOK HUMAN nKVKl.OPMKNT

options gradually gives the children an opportunity to be successful
in choosing activities they are ready for, and therefore enjoy. In this
way, their confidence in their ability to choose for themselves
grows. They also learn that they can trust their teachers to present
them with challenges, but not to overwhelm them witn activities
which they have no idea how to carry out. aiVvl which must
inevitably end in frustration or boredom. The security tliis knowl-
edge gives them makes them eager for new expcjienccs.

llie future success of the relationship between teachers and
children in Montessori classes will depend on the teachers' ability
to choose new challenges wisely. They nmst use their powers of
observation, their knowledge of sensitive periods, and their under-
standhig of the Montessori material. They must direct the children,
but on the basis of their own observations of the children's needs.
In this sense, it is the children who must direct the adults. It is not,
therefore, a case of the director and the directed. The adults and
the children work together to further the children's development.
Thus, both are directors and both are directed.

123

INDEX

absorbent mind. 12, 19, 40. 42. 48. 61
abstraction. 66
action-research. 44
activity, purposeful. 42. 43
adaptation, 6, 27, 51, 55, 61,75, 76, 77,
89, 93

adolescence, 50, 56, 75, 89

adult, role of, 6, 1 2, 13, 19, 20-21 . 25-26,

27,32,39.42,48,60,61,75
anthropological orientation, 5, 8, 47, 55
Arendt,H.,91
Aries, P., xii
uuto-education, 56. 62

Barzun, J.. 80
Bergc, A., 11

behavior, human, 10, 11, 36, 37; com-
pared with animals. 18, 37
behaviorism, xiv, 9, 51
blueprint, for research. 5-7
Bronou-ski, J., xiv .
Bmner, J., 9, 11,62,64,67-71
Brzezinski, Z., 85-87

Cartel, A., 10

child, goal of, xiii, 5, 6. 1) , 19, 38-40. 47.
75; prejudice toward, 5, 14, 29,
30-31, 51, 63.66,67,94

choice, 36, 41, 43

civilization, 38, 39

Cobliner, G., 88
Coglnll, G., 9, 1 1

concentration, 14,29. 32,41,4.?. 52, 53

conaete operations. 64

conditioning, 10, 17. 18, 49

conformity, 26, 51, 54, 88

control of movement, 14, 31, 33

controls of error, 26, 69

Cousteau, 99

creativity, 6, 13, 64

culture, 13, 19, 20,36,40,42,47

cuniculum, 53. 67-68, 70, 103, 104

Dalton School, 54
Darwin, C, xiv

development, human, 9-11, 14, 19, 37;
sodal, 6, 19, 25, 26, 28-30, 32, 34.
35

discovery, notion of in Montcssori edu-
cation, 22. 24. 25, 38, 47, 67-69
discovery of the child, 4, 44

ecology, 15,70, 100. 103

education, xv. 5, 15, 17, 18, 27, 48. 53,
55, 76, 78-79; beginning, 52; goal
of. 6, 41, 60, 82. 104, 105; progres-
sive, 17-18, 64, 91; traditional,
43,51,56,61,70.85, 103

ego, development, 25, 34, 40, 42, 61, 67,
89; function of, 22

129

117

118

Index

cinbr>onic life. 8. 10-12. 19. 47
ciiviroiiiTiciit. prt'purcd. S. 7, 14. 20-21.

2S-27. 61.62. 103
evolution. 37
cxperiiiicututioii. 43
exploration. 20. 22

fantasy. 17. 31-33. 54. 64
fonnatioii of man.-xiii. 5. 6. 11. 14. 15
48. 7S

freed oni. notion of in Montessori cdn ca-
tion. 14. 20.21.25. 26.43.54.64
Frend. A.. 89

Krend. S.. xii. 48. 49. 50. 77. 82
frustration. 17, 64. 77

generations, conflict between. 90; gap

between. 92. 93
Geneva School. 64, 65
growth. 9-11. 13

Millebrand. M'.. 55
llonsnian. A. E.. 91
Unnt. J. McV..63

imagination. 33. 98. 103
independence. 19. 21. 26, 31. 58. 42. 56.

62. 76. 106; economic. 56
indirect preparation. 14. 22. 29, 34. 41

51.62.64.75. 102
individnal being. 36. 38
individuation. 13. 77
Industrial Revolution, xii
instinct, xiii. 18. 19. 37
integration. 14. 21. 51. 76, 102
intellectual achievement. 45. 55. 61, 63-
64

intelligence. 22. 24. 31, 34. 37. 43. 61;

L'onnnon. 38. 106
intentionality. 37
internalization. 13. 61. 62. 66. 88
isolation of principle. 69
Itard. J.. 48

juvenile delincjuency. 76. 89
King. P.. 92. 93

language. 6. 12. 13. 14,36. 38. 62
learning, 9. 10. 12. 17,22.24.43.49 6"^
68JO4.5

Lorenz. K.. xiv
love. 12. 13. 27. 60

niateriali/.ed abstractions. 22. 65
maturation. 10, 13. 18. 19.53.63. 66. 76
Miller, II.. 59

Montessori.Maria. 1. 4. 11. 44, 65. 74.

80.82.83.85.95,97
Montcssori material. 17. 18. 20. 21-25.

28-29. 34.42.43.62.68. 69. 71
Montcssori Method, criticism of. 2-4, 7.

30. 68-69; goal of. 95, 99. 105;

history of. 1-3. 50. 33.44. 68.71.

82. 95; principles of, 5-7. 18-21.

26-8. 37-39. 41-43. 47-48. 102;

research. 7.44. 115-16
Montessori schools. 2. 25. 30. 31. 54. 95
Montessori teachers. 7. 25-27. 41. 44.

115-16
morality. 12
Morris. D., ^)
motivation. 53. 67

needs, inner, 5. 14. 20. 26. 31. 42. 56. 67,

76. 78. 105
Neff. \V.. 49-52
normalization, 14. 32,41. 67

observation, xii, xiv. 5. 7. 31. 33. 41. 44,

65.116
operational thinking. 63. 65
order. 11-12. 14.20, 31. 32. 33. m

parent-child relationships. 52. 76-78
pedagogy. 2. 53. 55. 56
peer group, 102. 103
Perquin. N.. 5

personalitv. development of. xiii. 6, 9.
11-14. 20. 55. 62, 64. 76. 87, 102;
totalitv of. 6. 21. 40-42. 53. 64.

Piagct. J- 64-67
Plato. 90
play. 30-34
pollution. 98

potentiality, notion of in Montessori
education. 10. 11. 13. 19. 20. 38,
39, 53, 55, 106

prepared environnKnl. 5. 7, 14. 20-21,
25-27, 61, 62. 103

psychic devciop'jrjcnt. xiii. 1 1 . 42

130

Index

119

psvchoannlvtic thought, 7, S, H,44, 51,

60,64,77,82
psvcbolog)', >7; modern, 8, 9, ^5-^7, 40-

41/44

psychosomatic unity, ^6, 41 , 4\ 76, 106
puberty, 14. 48, )1, 77

reading, 25
rebellion, 16

repetition, as a notion fti Montessori

education, 22-2"., ".2, 69
research, 5, 4^, 67, 81
reversibility, 64
rigidity, >6, 44
Rotb,'n., 56
Roussean. |. f., xii

s;ihnon. 99, 105
Schneiders, A., 76

scientific approacli, xiii, xiv, 5, 7, 9, ^1,

"^5,4"^
self-confidence, >2
self-constriietion, ^3, >4, 48
self-direction, 41
self-expression, >2, ^4, 64
self-realization, ?8, 60
seiLsitive periods, U, 19, 20, 42, 48. 50.

sensitivities, I2,A9, 42

Skinner, B. F., xiv

specificity of man, xiv, 8, 18, 35, 37, 47
spiritual being, 12, 36, 39, 40, 42, 53
spiritual embryo, xii, xiii, xiv, 51
spontaneous activity, 7, 31, 33,41,44
Stone Age, 39, 40
Supra Nature, 104

teacher training, 44
teaching aids, 70
toys, 30-31

unconscious education, 6. 39, 52
unconscious uiiud, 12, 14,82

values, 41, 88, 89,98
X'ellard, |., 39
Vellard, M.-Y., 39

Wallace, A., xiv

work, 6, 13, 14,32,38,42.47,48-53,56.

67; collective. 28; psychological

value of. 53. 55
WocxJs Hole Conference (Massaclm-

setts, 1957).62
world situation. 73. S7. 98
World War 11,44.90

youth, modem. 79. 90-92

131

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